Chapter 6 - Long-term memory: structure
The theme of this chapter is “division and interaction.”
ivision refers to distinguishing between different types of memory.
D
Memory can be divided into long-term and short-term memory.
Long-term memory can be divided into:
1. episodic memory:memory for specific experiences fromthe past
2. semantic memorymemory for facts
3. procedural memory:memory for how to carry out physicalactions
Interaction refers to the fact that the different types of memory interrelate and also share
mechanisms.
We will begin this chapter by revisiting short-term memory and how it connects with long
term memory. We will then look closely at the episodic, semantic and procedural
components of long-term memory together with the associated concepts of priming and
classical conditioning.
xplicit memories: memories we are aware of and cantalk about (or “declare”). Because
E
of this latter characteristic they are also sometimes referred to asdeclarative memories.
implicit memories:memories we aren’t aware of. Implicitmemory occurs when learning
from experience is not accompanied by conscious remembering.
,Comparing short-term and long-term memory processes
ong term memory (LTM):the system that is responsiblefor storing information for long
L
periods of time.
What is particularly amazing about this storage is that it stretches from just a few moments
ago to as far back as we can remember.
hile retaining information about the past is an important characteristic of LTM, we also
W
need to understand how this information is used. We can do this by focusing on the dynamic
aspects of how LTM operates, including how it interacts with working memory to create our
ongoing experience.
TM provides both an archive that we can refer to when we want to remember events from
L
the past, and a wealth of background information that we are constantly consulting as we
use working memory to make contact with what is happening at a particular moment.
Serial position curve
rimacy effect:people are more likely to rememberwords presented at the beginning of a
P
sequence.
Recency effect:people are better at remembering wordsthat are presented at the end of a
sequence.
possible explanation of the primacy effect is that participants had time to rehearse the
A
words at the beginning of the sequence and transfer them to LTM. At the beginning no other
words have been presented, the first word receives 100 per cent of the participant’s
attention. When the second word is presented, attention becomes spread over two words,
and so on; as additional words are presented, less rehearsal is possible for later words.
he explanation for the recency effect is that the most recently presented words are still in
T
STM and therefore are easy for participants to remember.
,Coding in short-term and long-term memory
oding:the form in which stimuli are represented.
C
We also can distinguish between short- and long-term memory by comparing the way
information is coded by the two systems.
o compare the way information is represented in the mind in STM and LTM systems, we
T
describe some types of coding in both STM and LTM:
1. visual coding: coding in the mind in the form of a visual image
2. auditory coding: coding in the mind in the form of a sound
3. semantic coding: coding in the mind in terms of meaning
isual coding in short-term and long-term memory
V
Remembering things by visualizing is both used by the STM and LTM. Recalling visual
patterns that were just shown is a way of visual coding by short-term memory. You use visual
coding in long-term memory when you create a picture in your mind of a person or place
from the past.
uditory coding in short-term and long-term memory
A
The phonological loop used for auditory coding in STM. Auditory coding also occurs in
long-term memory when you “play” a song in your head.
emantic coding in short-term and long-term memory
S
Intuitively it seems that semantic coding primarily happens in long-term memory, but this is
not the case. Semantic coding happens in both short-term and long-term memory.
Semantic coding in STM can be seen by proactive and retroactive interference. The fact that
words that are in the same category interfere with other words in that same category but not
with words in a different category proves semantic coding in STM.
Release from proactive interference:the increasein
performance when earlier learned information is in a
different category.
s mentioned before, semantic coding is also expected to
A
happen in long-term memory. The finding that specific
wording is forgotten but the general meaning can be
remembered for a long time has been confirmed in many
experiments. This description in terms of meaning is an
example of semantic coding in LTM.
, omparing coding in short-term and long-term memory
C
The type of coding that occurs in a particular situation depends largely on the task.
ecause of the nature of many short-term memory tasks, auditory coding is the predominant
B
type of coding in short-term memory.
emembering what happened is semantic coding, which often occurs for long-term memory.
R
Generally, semantic coding is the most likely form of coding for long-term memory tasks.
Locating memory in the brain
STM and LTM are separated in the brain, but there is some overlap.
ippocampus:the place where new long-term memoriesare formed. When the
H
hippocampus is damaged, no new memories can be made.
The STM will still work when the hippocampus is damaged, so STM and LTM are in different
places in the brain. The hippocampus is crucial for LTM but not STM.
TM and LTM are mediated by different mechanisms, which can act independently. This has
S
some limits because LTM is closely related to rehearsing in STM.
If someone has a short digit span he/she can have a problem with the STM system in
general or, and this is perhaps more likely, he/she has a deficit in auditory coding and the
phonological rehearsal process in particular, which is very detrimental for STM but much less
so for LTM.
he fact that the separation between STM and LTM is not so straightforward as often
T
suggested, is also supported by some recent brain imaging studies.
he hippocampus is involved in maintaining novel information in memory during short
T
delays. The hippocampus and other medial temporal lobe structures once thought to be
involved only in long-term memory also play some role in short-term memory.
lthough there is good evidence for the separation of short-term memory and long-term
A
memory, there is also evidence that these functions are not as disconnected as previously
thought, especially for tasks involving novel stimuli, thus faces, objects, figures, or
foreign-language words that you have not seen/heard before.
The theme of this chapter is “division and interaction.”
ivision refers to distinguishing between different types of memory.
D
Memory can be divided into long-term and short-term memory.
Long-term memory can be divided into:
1. episodic memory:memory for specific experiences fromthe past
2. semantic memorymemory for facts
3. procedural memory:memory for how to carry out physicalactions
Interaction refers to the fact that the different types of memory interrelate and also share
mechanisms.
We will begin this chapter by revisiting short-term memory and how it connects with long
term memory. We will then look closely at the episodic, semantic and procedural
components of long-term memory together with the associated concepts of priming and
classical conditioning.
xplicit memories: memories we are aware of and cantalk about (or “declare”). Because
E
of this latter characteristic they are also sometimes referred to asdeclarative memories.
implicit memories:memories we aren’t aware of. Implicitmemory occurs when learning
from experience is not accompanied by conscious remembering.
,Comparing short-term and long-term memory processes
ong term memory (LTM):the system that is responsiblefor storing information for long
L
periods of time.
What is particularly amazing about this storage is that it stretches from just a few moments
ago to as far back as we can remember.
hile retaining information about the past is an important characteristic of LTM, we also
W
need to understand how this information is used. We can do this by focusing on the dynamic
aspects of how LTM operates, including how it interacts with working memory to create our
ongoing experience.
TM provides both an archive that we can refer to when we want to remember events from
L
the past, and a wealth of background information that we are constantly consulting as we
use working memory to make contact with what is happening at a particular moment.
Serial position curve
rimacy effect:people are more likely to rememberwords presented at the beginning of a
P
sequence.
Recency effect:people are better at remembering wordsthat are presented at the end of a
sequence.
possible explanation of the primacy effect is that participants had time to rehearse the
A
words at the beginning of the sequence and transfer them to LTM. At the beginning no other
words have been presented, the first word receives 100 per cent of the participant’s
attention. When the second word is presented, attention becomes spread over two words,
and so on; as additional words are presented, less rehearsal is possible for later words.
he explanation for the recency effect is that the most recently presented words are still in
T
STM and therefore are easy for participants to remember.
,Coding in short-term and long-term memory
oding:the form in which stimuli are represented.
C
We also can distinguish between short- and long-term memory by comparing the way
information is coded by the two systems.
o compare the way information is represented in the mind in STM and LTM systems, we
T
describe some types of coding in both STM and LTM:
1. visual coding: coding in the mind in the form of a visual image
2. auditory coding: coding in the mind in the form of a sound
3. semantic coding: coding in the mind in terms of meaning
isual coding in short-term and long-term memory
V
Remembering things by visualizing is both used by the STM and LTM. Recalling visual
patterns that were just shown is a way of visual coding by short-term memory. You use visual
coding in long-term memory when you create a picture in your mind of a person or place
from the past.
uditory coding in short-term and long-term memory
A
The phonological loop used for auditory coding in STM. Auditory coding also occurs in
long-term memory when you “play” a song in your head.
emantic coding in short-term and long-term memory
S
Intuitively it seems that semantic coding primarily happens in long-term memory, but this is
not the case. Semantic coding happens in both short-term and long-term memory.
Semantic coding in STM can be seen by proactive and retroactive interference. The fact that
words that are in the same category interfere with other words in that same category but not
with words in a different category proves semantic coding in STM.
Release from proactive interference:the increasein
performance when earlier learned information is in a
different category.
s mentioned before, semantic coding is also expected to
A
happen in long-term memory. The finding that specific
wording is forgotten but the general meaning can be
remembered for a long time has been confirmed in many
experiments. This description in terms of meaning is an
example of semantic coding in LTM.
, omparing coding in short-term and long-term memory
C
The type of coding that occurs in a particular situation depends largely on the task.
ecause of the nature of many short-term memory tasks, auditory coding is the predominant
B
type of coding in short-term memory.
emembering what happened is semantic coding, which often occurs for long-term memory.
R
Generally, semantic coding is the most likely form of coding for long-term memory tasks.
Locating memory in the brain
STM and LTM are separated in the brain, but there is some overlap.
ippocampus:the place where new long-term memoriesare formed. When the
H
hippocampus is damaged, no new memories can be made.
The STM will still work when the hippocampus is damaged, so STM and LTM are in different
places in the brain. The hippocampus is crucial for LTM but not STM.
TM and LTM are mediated by different mechanisms, which can act independently. This has
S
some limits because LTM is closely related to rehearsing in STM.
If someone has a short digit span he/she can have a problem with the STM system in
general or, and this is perhaps more likely, he/she has a deficit in auditory coding and the
phonological rehearsal process in particular, which is very detrimental for STM but much less
so for LTM.
he fact that the separation between STM and LTM is not so straightforward as often
T
suggested, is also supported by some recent brain imaging studies.
he hippocampus is involved in maintaining novel information in memory during short
T
delays. The hippocampus and other medial temporal lobe structures once thought to be
involved only in long-term memory also play some role in short-term memory.
lthough there is good evidence for the separation of short-term memory and long-term
A
memory, there is also evidence that these functions are not as disconnected as previously
thought, especially for tasks involving novel stimuli, thus faces, objects, figures, or
foreign-language words that you have not seen/heard before.
