Work and Organizational Psychology Exam Revision
Chapter 1: What Is Industrial and Organizational Psychology?
What is the most studied variable in the field of organizational psychology and human
resource management? Job Performance.
Maximum Performance Typical Performance
The level of performance in a given domain Described as day-to-day performance
that one can produce on demand for a short or the performance individuals usually
period if one chooses to exert maximum achieve over extended periods in
effort, as studied in organizational psychology organizational psychology and human
and human resource management. resource management.
Worker is putting 100% of effort. Worker is putting 70% of effort.
Context for the experiment:
Understanding the strength of the relationship between typical and maximum performance
helps determine whether there is scientific value in distinguishing between the two.
Beus and Whitman (2012)
Objective:
Conduct a meta-analysis to estimate the general magnitude of the typical-maximum
performance relationship in organizational psychology.
Typical-Maximum Performance Relationship: Refers to the association between
typical (average) performance and maximum (highest) performance in
organizational psychology.
Findings:
Meta-analysis revealed a moderate association between typical and maximum
performance (r = +.42).
Indicates a meaningful distinction between typical and maximum performance.
+ It was found that cognitive ability was more strongly related to maximum
performance than to typical performance.
No significant differences between studies targeting and not targeting the typical-
maximum performance association.
Task complexity moderated the typical-maximum performance relationship; medium
complexity tasks showed a stronger association than low complexity tasks.
, Objective performance measures showed a smaller association than subjective
measures.
Hypotheses 5 and 7 supported ⟶ others were in the expected direction but
insignificant.
Maximum Performance Typical Performance
Influencing factors: Ability Influencing factors: Influenced by both
ability and motivation.
Individual ability is the most important
determinant of maximum performance This combination of motivation and
(Since the conditions for identifying ability offers the primary explanation
maximum performance should naturally for the degree to which typical and
motivate employees to perform at their maximum performance may differ.
best, making
Four conditions – that must be considered when comparing typical and maximum
performance in organizational psychology:
1. Same Method of Measurement: The modality of measurement must be the same when
observing both typical and maximum performance.
2. Same Level of Specificity: Both types of performance should be measured at the same
level of specificity (e.g., overall job performance cannot be compared to task-specific job
performance).
3. Similar Employee Tenure for Assessment: Typical and maximum performance measures
should be assessed at roughly the same level of employee tenure.
Employee tenure refers to the duration of time that an employee has been working for
a particular organization or in a specific position
4. Reliable Assessment of Both Performance Types: Both types of performance should be
assessed reliably to ensure accuracy and comparability.
7 Hypotheses presented by Beus and Whitman (2012)
Length of Maximum Performance Episodes: Longer maximum performance episodes are
associated with stronger typical-maximum performance relationships.
Length of Typical Performance Episodes: Shorter typical performance episodes are
associated with larger typical-maximum performance relationships.
Time Lag Between Performance Episodes: Longer time lags between typical and
maximum performance episodes are associated with weaker relationships.
, Role of Motivation: Motivation is more strongly related to typical performance than to
maximum performance.
Role of Individual Abilities: Individual abilities are more strongly related to maximum
performance than to typical performance.
Conscientiousness Factor: “C” is more strongly related to typical performance than to
maximum performance.
Openness to Experience Factor: more strongly related to maximum performance than to
typical performance.
→ Hypotheses 5 & 7 supported (others were in the expected direction but insignificant).
Future Challenges for I-O Psychology:
1. Relevance: Focus on current problems, not those of the past.
2. Usefulness: Constantly think of ways to apply research in practice.
3. Bigger Picture: Address large global issues.
4. Scientific Grounding: Maintain commitment to the scientific method, including careful
observation, hypothesis testing, public data collection and analysis, and logical connections
between data and interpretations.
The past, present and future of I-O Psychology:
1876-1930:
1917 = First Ph.D. in Industrial Psychology awarded to Lillian Gilbreth.
World War I: First mass group testing (for the selection of army recruits)
Army Alpha and Army Beta Tests
Important individuals:
, Wilhelm Wundt Founded one of the first psychological laboratories.
(1876) + Trained Munsterberg and Cattell, who were pivotal in I-O psychology
emergence.
Hugo Among the first to measure worker abilities and link them to
Munsterberg: performance.
Applied rudimentary statistics in his studies.
Published the first I-O psychology textbook in 1912.
Focused on industrial aspects, aiming to increase productivity.
James Cattell: Recognized the significance of individual differences in predicting
behavior, shifting the view of these differences from 'errors' to
valuable data
1930-1964:
Human relations movement Theories of motivation, such as Maslow's + Studies of job
satisfaction.
Civil Rights Act of 1964 & Title VII - Required employers to justify the use of tests for
selection to reduce employment discrimination.
Elton Mayo – Proposed there was a mental state known as “revery obsession: mental
state resulting from mind-numbing, repetitive, and difficult work in US factories”.
Hawthorne effect: a change in behavior or attitudes simply as a result of increased
attention (adding better lighting in a factory ⟶ performance remains improved even after
the light is switched off).
⟶ Up until the Hawthorne studies, it was widely believed that money was the only
significant motivator of effort and that the environment, not the individual, was of
primary importance.
Changes in workspace after 1980's:
Working with our hands --- (shifted) --- → Working with our minds.
+ Little stability, greater diversity, personal computing, telecommuting & virtual teams,
family-friendly workspaces, providing a service Vs. manufacturing “goods”.
Humans are social beings – our evolutionary history has shaped us to thrive in group – It
is a mistake to only ask individual members about their well-being or happiness levels, as
these are often influenced by the status of the group rather than the individual alone.
Self-Determination Theory:
, Observation: Making progress is identified as a the most potent motivator within the
workforce.
Recognizing and acknowledging employees' progress in their tasks and projects can
contribute significantly to their motivation and job satisfaction — most managers
underestimate its importance in work environments.
This theory is composed of 3 factors:
Competence The sufficient ability, judgment, strength or intellect to accomplish a
task. When people experience a sense of competence, they are more
motivated to engage in tasks, take on challenges, and persist in the face
of obstacles.
Relatedness The need for social connection and belonging. It encompasses the
desire to feel connected to and valued by others. When individuals have
strong relatedness, they are more likely to experience a sense of
community, social support, and positive relationships.
Autonomy Refers to the innate human need to feel a sense of choice and control
over one's actions and decisions. When individuals perceive that they
have autonomy, they are more likely to be intrinsically motivated,
meaning they engage in activities because they find them personally
meaningful and satisfying.
How was Self Determination theory affected by Hybrid Working?
Competence: The most vulnerable, children, were greatly affected as they were unable to
learn through social interactions, hindering their ability to acquire necessary skills and
knowledge.
Relatedness: Online dating during the lockdown proved to be ineffective in fostering
connections and a sense of belonging among individuals.
Autonomy: Recognizing the autonomy preferences of individuals, including introverts
who may not prefer constant social interactions, is crucial for facilitating effective hybrid
working arrangements. This includes accommodating those who struggle to connect but
still desire to do so.
When covid-19 started in February 2020…
Close networks - individuals became closer than they were already.
Distant networks - these individuals suffered during the lockdown, and became even
more lonely and distant to one another.
Chapter 1: What Is Industrial and Organizational Psychology?
What is the most studied variable in the field of organizational psychology and human
resource management? Job Performance.
Maximum Performance Typical Performance
The level of performance in a given domain Described as day-to-day performance
that one can produce on demand for a short or the performance individuals usually
period if one chooses to exert maximum achieve over extended periods in
effort, as studied in organizational psychology organizational psychology and human
and human resource management. resource management.
Worker is putting 100% of effort. Worker is putting 70% of effort.
Context for the experiment:
Understanding the strength of the relationship between typical and maximum performance
helps determine whether there is scientific value in distinguishing between the two.
Beus and Whitman (2012)
Objective:
Conduct a meta-analysis to estimate the general magnitude of the typical-maximum
performance relationship in organizational psychology.
Typical-Maximum Performance Relationship: Refers to the association between
typical (average) performance and maximum (highest) performance in
organizational psychology.
Findings:
Meta-analysis revealed a moderate association between typical and maximum
performance (r = +.42).
Indicates a meaningful distinction between typical and maximum performance.
+ It was found that cognitive ability was more strongly related to maximum
performance than to typical performance.
No significant differences between studies targeting and not targeting the typical-
maximum performance association.
Task complexity moderated the typical-maximum performance relationship; medium
complexity tasks showed a stronger association than low complexity tasks.
, Objective performance measures showed a smaller association than subjective
measures.
Hypotheses 5 and 7 supported ⟶ others were in the expected direction but
insignificant.
Maximum Performance Typical Performance
Influencing factors: Ability Influencing factors: Influenced by both
ability and motivation.
Individual ability is the most important
determinant of maximum performance This combination of motivation and
(Since the conditions for identifying ability offers the primary explanation
maximum performance should naturally for the degree to which typical and
motivate employees to perform at their maximum performance may differ.
best, making
Four conditions – that must be considered when comparing typical and maximum
performance in organizational psychology:
1. Same Method of Measurement: The modality of measurement must be the same when
observing both typical and maximum performance.
2. Same Level of Specificity: Both types of performance should be measured at the same
level of specificity (e.g., overall job performance cannot be compared to task-specific job
performance).
3. Similar Employee Tenure for Assessment: Typical and maximum performance measures
should be assessed at roughly the same level of employee tenure.
Employee tenure refers to the duration of time that an employee has been working for
a particular organization or in a specific position
4. Reliable Assessment of Both Performance Types: Both types of performance should be
assessed reliably to ensure accuracy and comparability.
7 Hypotheses presented by Beus and Whitman (2012)
Length of Maximum Performance Episodes: Longer maximum performance episodes are
associated with stronger typical-maximum performance relationships.
Length of Typical Performance Episodes: Shorter typical performance episodes are
associated with larger typical-maximum performance relationships.
Time Lag Between Performance Episodes: Longer time lags between typical and
maximum performance episodes are associated with weaker relationships.
, Role of Motivation: Motivation is more strongly related to typical performance than to
maximum performance.
Role of Individual Abilities: Individual abilities are more strongly related to maximum
performance than to typical performance.
Conscientiousness Factor: “C” is more strongly related to typical performance than to
maximum performance.
Openness to Experience Factor: more strongly related to maximum performance than to
typical performance.
→ Hypotheses 5 & 7 supported (others were in the expected direction but insignificant).
Future Challenges for I-O Psychology:
1. Relevance: Focus on current problems, not those of the past.
2. Usefulness: Constantly think of ways to apply research in practice.
3. Bigger Picture: Address large global issues.
4. Scientific Grounding: Maintain commitment to the scientific method, including careful
observation, hypothesis testing, public data collection and analysis, and logical connections
between data and interpretations.
The past, present and future of I-O Psychology:
1876-1930:
1917 = First Ph.D. in Industrial Psychology awarded to Lillian Gilbreth.
World War I: First mass group testing (for the selection of army recruits)
Army Alpha and Army Beta Tests
Important individuals:
, Wilhelm Wundt Founded one of the first psychological laboratories.
(1876) + Trained Munsterberg and Cattell, who were pivotal in I-O psychology
emergence.
Hugo Among the first to measure worker abilities and link them to
Munsterberg: performance.
Applied rudimentary statistics in his studies.
Published the first I-O psychology textbook in 1912.
Focused on industrial aspects, aiming to increase productivity.
James Cattell: Recognized the significance of individual differences in predicting
behavior, shifting the view of these differences from 'errors' to
valuable data
1930-1964:
Human relations movement Theories of motivation, such as Maslow's + Studies of job
satisfaction.
Civil Rights Act of 1964 & Title VII - Required employers to justify the use of tests for
selection to reduce employment discrimination.
Elton Mayo – Proposed there was a mental state known as “revery obsession: mental
state resulting from mind-numbing, repetitive, and difficult work in US factories”.
Hawthorne effect: a change in behavior or attitudes simply as a result of increased
attention (adding better lighting in a factory ⟶ performance remains improved even after
the light is switched off).
⟶ Up until the Hawthorne studies, it was widely believed that money was the only
significant motivator of effort and that the environment, not the individual, was of
primary importance.
Changes in workspace after 1980's:
Working with our hands --- (shifted) --- → Working with our minds.
+ Little stability, greater diversity, personal computing, telecommuting & virtual teams,
family-friendly workspaces, providing a service Vs. manufacturing “goods”.
Humans are social beings – our evolutionary history has shaped us to thrive in group – It
is a mistake to only ask individual members about their well-being or happiness levels, as
these are often influenced by the status of the group rather than the individual alone.
Self-Determination Theory:
, Observation: Making progress is identified as a the most potent motivator within the
workforce.
Recognizing and acknowledging employees' progress in their tasks and projects can
contribute significantly to their motivation and job satisfaction — most managers
underestimate its importance in work environments.
This theory is composed of 3 factors:
Competence The sufficient ability, judgment, strength or intellect to accomplish a
task. When people experience a sense of competence, they are more
motivated to engage in tasks, take on challenges, and persist in the face
of obstacles.
Relatedness The need for social connection and belonging. It encompasses the
desire to feel connected to and valued by others. When individuals have
strong relatedness, they are more likely to experience a sense of
community, social support, and positive relationships.
Autonomy Refers to the innate human need to feel a sense of choice and control
over one's actions and decisions. When individuals perceive that they
have autonomy, they are more likely to be intrinsically motivated,
meaning they engage in activities because they find them personally
meaningful and satisfying.
How was Self Determination theory affected by Hybrid Working?
Competence: The most vulnerable, children, were greatly affected as they were unable to
learn through social interactions, hindering their ability to acquire necessary skills and
knowledge.
Relatedness: Online dating during the lockdown proved to be ineffective in fostering
connections and a sense of belonging among individuals.
Autonomy: Recognizing the autonomy preferences of individuals, including introverts
who may not prefer constant social interactions, is crucial for facilitating effective hybrid
working arrangements. This includes accommodating those who struggle to connect but
still desire to do so.
When covid-19 started in February 2020…
Close networks - individuals became closer than they were already.
Distant networks - these individuals suffered during the lockdown, and became even
more lonely and distant to one another.
