CHAPTER 12: PROBLEM SOLVING Gestalt psychologists A group of psychologists who
proposed principles governing perception, such as
Acrobat problem A problem involving acrobats that is laws of organization, and a perceptual approach to
similar to the Tower of Hanoi prob- lem. Used to problem solving involving restructuring. (3, 12)
illustrate how the way a problem is stated can influence
its difficulty. See also Reverse acrobat problem. (12) Goal state In problem solving, the condition that
occurs when a problem has been solved. (12)
Analogical encoding A technique in which people
compare two problems that illustrate a principle. This Ill-defined problem A problem in which it is difficult to
technique is designed to help people discover similar specify a clear goal state or specific operators. Many
structural features of cases or problems. (12) real-life problems are ill-defined problems. (12)
Analogical paradox Participants in psychological Initial state In problem solving, the conditions at the
experiments tend to focus on surface features in beginning of a problem. (12)
analogy problems, whereas people in the real world
frequently use deeper, more structural features. (12) Insight Sudden realization of a problem’s solution. (12)
Analogical problem solving The use of analogies as Intermediate states In problem solving, the various
an aid to solving problems. Typically, a solution to one conditions that exist along the pathways between the
problem, the source problem, is presented that is initial and goal states. (12)
analogous to the solution to another problem, the
target problem. (12) In vivo problem-solving research Observing people
to determine how they solve prob- lems in real-world
Analogical transfer The application of problem-solving situations. This technique has been used to study the
strategies experienced in solving one problem to the use of analogy in a number of different settings,
solution of another, similar problem. (12) including laboratory meetings of a university research
group and design brainstorming sessions in an
Analogy Making a comparison in order to show a industrial research and development department. (12)
similarity between two different things. (12)
Means-end analysis A problem-solving strategy that
Candle problem A problem, first described by seeks to reduce the difference between the initial and
Duncker, in which a person is given a num- ber of goal states. This is achieved by creating subgoals,
objects and is given the task of mounting a candle on a intermediate states that are closer to the goal. (12)
wall so it can burn without dripping wax on the floor.
This problem was used to study functional fixedness. Mental set A preconceived notion about how to
(12) approach a problem, which is determined by a person’s
experience or what has worked in the past. (12)
Convergent thinking Thinking that works toward
finding a solution to a specific problem that usually has Mental simulation Models that people create about
a correct answer. Can be contrasted with Divergent what will happen following different decisions. (10, 12)
thinking. (12)
Mutilated checkerboard problem A problem that has
Creative cognition A technique developed by Finke to been used to study how the statement of a problem
train people to think creatively. (12) influences a person’s ability to reach a solution. (12)
Design fixation Presenting a sample design influences Operators In problem solving, permissible moves that
the creation of new designs. (12) can be made toward a problem’s solution. (12)
Dichotic Divergent thinking Thinking that is open- Problem A situation in which there is an obstacle
ended, involving a large number of potential solutions. between a present state and a goal state and it is not
Can be contrasted with Convergent thinking. (12) immediately obvious how to get around the obstacle.
(12)
Fixation In problem solving, people’s tendency to
focus on a specific characteristic of the problem that Problem space The initial state, goal state, and all the
keeps them from arriving at a solution. See also Design possible intermediate states for a particular problem.
fixation; Functional fixedness. (12) (12)
Functional fixedness An effect that occurs when the Radiation problem A problem posed by Duncker that
ideas a person has about an object’s function inhibit involves finding a way to destroy a tumor by radiation
the person’s ability to use the object for a different without damaging other organs in the body. This
function. See also Fixation (in problem solving). (12)
proposed principles governing perception, such as
Acrobat problem A problem involving acrobats that is laws of organization, and a perceptual approach to
similar to the Tower of Hanoi prob- lem. Used to problem solving involving restructuring. (3, 12)
illustrate how the way a problem is stated can influence
its difficulty. See also Reverse acrobat problem. (12) Goal state In problem solving, the condition that
occurs when a problem has been solved. (12)
Analogical encoding A technique in which people
compare two problems that illustrate a principle. This Ill-defined problem A problem in which it is difficult to
technique is designed to help people discover similar specify a clear goal state or specific operators. Many
structural features of cases or problems. (12) real-life problems are ill-defined problems. (12)
Analogical paradox Participants in psychological Initial state In problem solving, the conditions at the
experiments tend to focus on surface features in beginning of a problem. (12)
analogy problems, whereas people in the real world
frequently use deeper, more structural features. (12) Insight Sudden realization of a problem’s solution. (12)
Analogical problem solving The use of analogies as Intermediate states In problem solving, the various
an aid to solving problems. Typically, a solution to one conditions that exist along the pathways between the
problem, the source problem, is presented that is initial and goal states. (12)
analogous to the solution to another problem, the
target problem. (12) In vivo problem-solving research Observing people
to determine how they solve prob- lems in real-world
Analogical transfer The application of problem-solving situations. This technique has been used to study the
strategies experienced in solving one problem to the use of analogy in a number of different settings,
solution of another, similar problem. (12) including laboratory meetings of a university research
group and design brainstorming sessions in an
Analogy Making a comparison in order to show a industrial research and development department. (12)
similarity between two different things. (12)
Means-end analysis A problem-solving strategy that
Candle problem A problem, first described by seeks to reduce the difference between the initial and
Duncker, in which a person is given a num- ber of goal states. This is achieved by creating subgoals,
objects and is given the task of mounting a candle on a intermediate states that are closer to the goal. (12)
wall so it can burn without dripping wax on the floor.
This problem was used to study functional fixedness. Mental set A preconceived notion about how to
(12) approach a problem, which is determined by a person’s
experience or what has worked in the past. (12)
Convergent thinking Thinking that works toward
finding a solution to a specific problem that usually has Mental simulation Models that people create about
a correct answer. Can be contrasted with Divergent what will happen following different decisions. (10, 12)
thinking. (12)
Mutilated checkerboard problem A problem that has
Creative cognition A technique developed by Finke to been used to study how the statement of a problem
train people to think creatively. (12) influences a person’s ability to reach a solution. (12)
Design fixation Presenting a sample design influences Operators In problem solving, permissible moves that
the creation of new designs. (12) can be made toward a problem’s solution. (12)
Dichotic Divergent thinking Thinking that is open- Problem A situation in which there is an obstacle
ended, involving a large number of potential solutions. between a present state and a goal state and it is not
Can be contrasted with Convergent thinking. (12) immediately obvious how to get around the obstacle.
(12)
Fixation In problem solving, people’s tendency to
focus on a specific characteristic of the problem that Problem space The initial state, goal state, and all the
keeps them from arriving at a solution. See also Design possible intermediate states for a particular problem.
fixation; Functional fixedness. (12) (12)
Functional fixedness An effect that occurs when the Radiation problem A problem posed by Duncker that
ideas a person has about an object’s function inhibit involves finding a way to destroy a tumor by radiation
the person’s ability to use the object for a different without damaging other organs in the body. This
function. See also Fixation (in problem solving). (12)
