Qualitative Research Methods – Radboud University
Lecture 1 – introduction to qualitative research methods
What is qualitative research? All forms of research aimed at generating knowledge by
collecting and interpreting material about a social phenomenon in reality observed with our
6 senses, translated to text. So, not about collecting numerical material.
- Empirical material: textual information about phenomenon that you collected
through observations, interviewing, or collecting historical documents.
- Extremely intensive (e.g. interviews, observations take a lot of time)
- Large number of causal relationships inversely proportional to small number of
observation units
- Analytical generalization rather than statistical generalization (apply results from
your study to other cases as well)
Difference #1 between qualitative and quantitative research = thick data
- Qualitative data = thick data (rich insights, the idea that numbers alone are not
enough) > ‘Data related to qualitative aspects of human experience and behavior,
particularly when used as context for the analysis of a large data set.’ To really
understand data, you often need to consider human emotion which is rarely data
driven.
- Quantitative data = not contextually sensitive > ‘In quantitative research, context is
usually treated as noise or as something that gets in the way. Quantitative
researcher trades context for the ability to generalize across a population.
When you are inside the field you are researching, it is very different from the
quantitative data you have.
Difference #2 between qualitative and quantitative research = number of relationships
through little observations. Because there are few observation units to examine, many
relationships between variables an come into view. Compared this with quantitative
research, where many observation units help to make precise statements about a relatively
small number of relationships between variables. > large number of causal relationships is
inversely proportional to the small number of observation units.
Difference #3 between qualitative and quantitative research = focus on text vs on numbers
In qualitative research, you focus a lot on textual data as opposed to numbers
Difference #4 between qualitative and quantitative research = research process is not as
sequential in qualitative research, it is more iterative in nature. It is not linear like in
quantitative research, you can go back and forth and for instance change your research
question. In your own research, do not be shy of changing things, just be mindful of why you
are doing it.
Difference #5 between qualitative and quantitative research = qualitative is inclusive of
different philosophical positions (also known as paradigms). Quantitative research is not very
inclusive in looking at the world from different ways, much in positivistic/realist paradigm.
Qualitative research can do all three paradigms. These paradigms say how you want to
,approach your research (your philosophy, what are your assumptions). Two important
assumptions: 1. Ontology (what is reality) and 2. Epistemology (how is that reality known).
A realist/positivist paradigm says that ontology is one reality, and we can all
objectively measure that. Example: researcher wants to understand what the
relationship between turnover on the motivation of the employees of the
organization is. Why? Try to understand a given relationship, nothing more.
The interpretivist paradigm says there is no one reality but multiple realities, and we
can only subjectively know them. Example: the research wants to understand the
lived experience of refugees in country X.
The critical realist paradigm (born of feminist movement) has the idea that there are
huge power imbalances, a lot of issues that men are talking about do not represent
women perspective. Critical perspective therefore says that there is one reality, but
because methods are human made, we can never reach that actual reality because
our research methodologies are not perfect. Therefore, objective ontology with
subjective epistemology. Are very aware of who is creating the data, power positions
in research. Example: the researcher is interested in understanding power dynamics
when it comes to how promotion is done in the organization.
What is a paradigm: a fundamental image of the subject matter within science, defines
what should be studied, what questions should be asked, what rules should be followed
when interpreting the answers. Differentiates scientific communities from each other.
Ontology: is about what is reality (differentiates between objective and subjective).
Epistemology: vision of what knowledge is and how people are able to obtain knowledge.
Positivist Interpretivist Critical realist
Ontology One actual reality, Multiple realities Objective reality that
one objective truth exists independent of
what we experience
Epistemology Objectively known, so Subjectively known, Subjectively known,
methodology can so methodology can methodology can
measure this reality capture these approximate this reality
subjective meanings
Methodological issues must be answered within the context of a particular research setting.
Each inquiry requires careful selection of the proper tools. Too often, we ask how to
measure something without raising the question of what we would do with the
measurement if we had it.
Aim of research, formulating research objective & research question for qualitative study
Research objective: external goal (what you are going to contribute with your research) and
internal goal (which knowledge they hope to generate to make that contribution). Internal
goal leads to research question: affect the literature, data collection, data analysis and vice
versa (literature and data can also affect research question).
What affects both the research question and research objective from a
methodological point of view? Your paradigm is going to affect the whole process,
objective and question changes completely for different paradigms.
, The research question must be open and therefore start with what, why, how, which. Sub-
questions break down the research question into various sub-steps and guide the
continuance of the research process. Rules: they should provide an answer to the research
question, but it is not allowed to have sub questions that provide more information than the
research question.
Structure of research goal: external goal … by … internal goal, OR internal goal … in order to
… external goal. Key ingredients of good research question is consistent with research
objective (and vice versa), is clear and precise, is relevant, and feasible and narrowed down.
Translating internal goal into a question is a good first step in formulating a research
question. A good research objective is achievable, relevant, defined, focused and bright.
Purpose of external goal: create theory or create practice.
- Theory-oriented research (very abstract) mainly aims to contribute to the academic
knowledge/theory about a phenomenon in an organization. For instance, existing
explanations for knowledge need to be refined, or good explanation is still lacking.
The purpose of the research is to acquire or further develop this knowledge. Comes
in three modes of logical inference: induction (generating new knowledge/theories,
from data, analysis, to theory), deduction (testing a theory, from theory, to collecting
data, and analyze if it accepts hypothesis or not), and abduction (mix of induction
and deduction, happens when you make changes to your coding).
- Practice-oriented research (concrete advise for the organization)
Purpose of internal goal: achieve external goal by generating knowledge. Whether your
external goal is theoretical or practical, your internal goal is always about generating
knowledge.
Qualitative case study research and understanding different types of research questions
In case study research, mostly use exploratory or explanatory research questions:
- Exploratory research means try to understand a certain concept in detail or show the
elements of a phenomenon: what characterizes X/Y or how is X/Y characterized?
- Explanatory research: relationships between different concepts, better
understanding a phenomenon, what causes Y, why is Y caused, or what are the
effects of X? X is independent variable, Y is dependent, Z is context.
o Y centered: you know the dependent variable Y, do not know what influences
that > what causes Y? why is Y caused?
o X centered: you know the independent variable X, but not what it influences
> dependent (Y), what are the effects of X?
o X & Y centered research question (positivistic/realistic): what is the effect of X
on Y? how or why does X affect Y? Focus on cause-effect relation.
- Examples:
o What is the impact of diversity and inclusion initiatives in an organization? >
explanatory (x centered)
o Why does competitive advantage have an effect on the company’s profit? >
explanatory (x and y centered)
o What are the different styles of leadership? > exploratory
o What factors lead to competitive advantage? > explanatory (y centered)
Lecture 1 – introduction to qualitative research methods
What is qualitative research? All forms of research aimed at generating knowledge by
collecting and interpreting material about a social phenomenon in reality observed with our
6 senses, translated to text. So, not about collecting numerical material.
- Empirical material: textual information about phenomenon that you collected
through observations, interviewing, or collecting historical documents.
- Extremely intensive (e.g. interviews, observations take a lot of time)
- Large number of causal relationships inversely proportional to small number of
observation units
- Analytical generalization rather than statistical generalization (apply results from
your study to other cases as well)
Difference #1 between qualitative and quantitative research = thick data
- Qualitative data = thick data (rich insights, the idea that numbers alone are not
enough) > ‘Data related to qualitative aspects of human experience and behavior,
particularly when used as context for the analysis of a large data set.’ To really
understand data, you often need to consider human emotion which is rarely data
driven.
- Quantitative data = not contextually sensitive > ‘In quantitative research, context is
usually treated as noise or as something that gets in the way. Quantitative
researcher trades context for the ability to generalize across a population.
When you are inside the field you are researching, it is very different from the
quantitative data you have.
Difference #2 between qualitative and quantitative research = number of relationships
through little observations. Because there are few observation units to examine, many
relationships between variables an come into view. Compared this with quantitative
research, where many observation units help to make precise statements about a relatively
small number of relationships between variables. > large number of causal relationships is
inversely proportional to the small number of observation units.
Difference #3 between qualitative and quantitative research = focus on text vs on numbers
In qualitative research, you focus a lot on textual data as opposed to numbers
Difference #4 between qualitative and quantitative research = research process is not as
sequential in qualitative research, it is more iterative in nature. It is not linear like in
quantitative research, you can go back and forth and for instance change your research
question. In your own research, do not be shy of changing things, just be mindful of why you
are doing it.
Difference #5 between qualitative and quantitative research = qualitative is inclusive of
different philosophical positions (also known as paradigms). Quantitative research is not very
inclusive in looking at the world from different ways, much in positivistic/realist paradigm.
Qualitative research can do all three paradigms. These paradigms say how you want to
,approach your research (your philosophy, what are your assumptions). Two important
assumptions: 1. Ontology (what is reality) and 2. Epistemology (how is that reality known).
A realist/positivist paradigm says that ontology is one reality, and we can all
objectively measure that. Example: researcher wants to understand what the
relationship between turnover on the motivation of the employees of the
organization is. Why? Try to understand a given relationship, nothing more.
The interpretivist paradigm says there is no one reality but multiple realities, and we
can only subjectively know them. Example: the research wants to understand the
lived experience of refugees in country X.
The critical realist paradigm (born of feminist movement) has the idea that there are
huge power imbalances, a lot of issues that men are talking about do not represent
women perspective. Critical perspective therefore says that there is one reality, but
because methods are human made, we can never reach that actual reality because
our research methodologies are not perfect. Therefore, objective ontology with
subjective epistemology. Are very aware of who is creating the data, power positions
in research. Example: the researcher is interested in understanding power dynamics
when it comes to how promotion is done in the organization.
What is a paradigm: a fundamental image of the subject matter within science, defines
what should be studied, what questions should be asked, what rules should be followed
when interpreting the answers. Differentiates scientific communities from each other.
Ontology: is about what is reality (differentiates between objective and subjective).
Epistemology: vision of what knowledge is and how people are able to obtain knowledge.
Positivist Interpretivist Critical realist
Ontology One actual reality, Multiple realities Objective reality that
one objective truth exists independent of
what we experience
Epistemology Objectively known, so Subjectively known, Subjectively known,
methodology can so methodology can methodology can
measure this reality capture these approximate this reality
subjective meanings
Methodological issues must be answered within the context of a particular research setting.
Each inquiry requires careful selection of the proper tools. Too often, we ask how to
measure something without raising the question of what we would do with the
measurement if we had it.
Aim of research, formulating research objective & research question for qualitative study
Research objective: external goal (what you are going to contribute with your research) and
internal goal (which knowledge they hope to generate to make that contribution). Internal
goal leads to research question: affect the literature, data collection, data analysis and vice
versa (literature and data can also affect research question).
What affects both the research question and research objective from a
methodological point of view? Your paradigm is going to affect the whole process,
objective and question changes completely for different paradigms.
, The research question must be open and therefore start with what, why, how, which. Sub-
questions break down the research question into various sub-steps and guide the
continuance of the research process. Rules: they should provide an answer to the research
question, but it is not allowed to have sub questions that provide more information than the
research question.
Structure of research goal: external goal … by … internal goal, OR internal goal … in order to
… external goal. Key ingredients of good research question is consistent with research
objective (and vice versa), is clear and precise, is relevant, and feasible and narrowed down.
Translating internal goal into a question is a good first step in formulating a research
question. A good research objective is achievable, relevant, defined, focused and bright.
Purpose of external goal: create theory or create practice.
- Theory-oriented research (very abstract) mainly aims to contribute to the academic
knowledge/theory about a phenomenon in an organization. For instance, existing
explanations for knowledge need to be refined, or good explanation is still lacking.
The purpose of the research is to acquire or further develop this knowledge. Comes
in three modes of logical inference: induction (generating new knowledge/theories,
from data, analysis, to theory), deduction (testing a theory, from theory, to collecting
data, and analyze if it accepts hypothesis or not), and abduction (mix of induction
and deduction, happens when you make changes to your coding).
- Practice-oriented research (concrete advise for the organization)
Purpose of internal goal: achieve external goal by generating knowledge. Whether your
external goal is theoretical or practical, your internal goal is always about generating
knowledge.
Qualitative case study research and understanding different types of research questions
In case study research, mostly use exploratory or explanatory research questions:
- Exploratory research means try to understand a certain concept in detail or show the
elements of a phenomenon: what characterizes X/Y or how is X/Y characterized?
- Explanatory research: relationships between different concepts, better
understanding a phenomenon, what causes Y, why is Y caused, or what are the
effects of X? X is independent variable, Y is dependent, Z is context.
o Y centered: you know the dependent variable Y, do not know what influences
that > what causes Y? why is Y caused?
o X centered: you know the independent variable X, but not what it influences
> dependent (Y), what are the effects of X?
o X & Y centered research question (positivistic/realistic): what is the effect of X
on Y? how or why does X affect Y? Focus on cause-effect relation.
- Examples:
o What is the impact of diversity and inclusion initiatives in an organization? >
explanatory (x centered)
o Why does competitive advantage have an effect on the company’s profit? >
explanatory (x and y centered)
o What are the different styles of leadership? > exploratory
o What factors lead to competitive advantage? > explanatory (y centered)
