National Counselors Examination – Study Guide
Transference - How the client feels to the professional
Countertransference - How the professional feels about the client
Assessment
Needs: A referral question, behavioral observation & clinical interview
Behavior Theory:
WATSON - SKINNER - THORNDIKE
• All behavior is learned through conditioning
• Focus on observable behaviors of people or groups
• Dismisses internal mental states
• Dominated psychology during early 20th century
Objective:
• Study human behavior in systematic way
• Does not take into account emotion, subconscious/unconscious (too subjective)
2 Forms of Training/Conditioning:
• Classical
• Operant (subject learns to associate behavior with outcome) Rewards &
Punishment
Schedules of Reinforcement:
• Continuous reinforcement
Good for initial stages of learning
Reinforce subject each time desired behavior occurs
• Partial reinforcement
- Reinforces subject only some of the time the desired behavior occurs
- Fixed Ratio: Reinforced after predetermined # of responses
- Variable Ratio: Response reinforced after variable # of responses (ex.
Slot machine)
- Fixed Interval: Response rewarded after specified amount of time (ex.
Reward every 2 minutes)
- Variable interval: Response rewarded after an unpredictable amount
of time has passed (ex. Reward comes at 2 min, 6 min, 3 min, 10 min,
etc.)
• Operant Conditioning:
- Reinforcement (Increase, do, ‘reinforce’ the behavior)
, - Positive reinforcement: ADD appetitive stimulus following correct
behavior
- Negative reinforcement:
o Escape: Remove unpleasant stimuli following correct beh. (Ex.
Turning off alarm clock) “Do the behavior to escape the bad
thing”
o Active Avoidance: Behavior avoids unpleasant stimulus
(studying to avoid a bad grade) “Do the behavior to avoid the
bad thing”
o Punishment (decrease, stop, behavior)
o Positive Punishment: Add unpleasant stimulus following
unwanted beh.
o Negative Punishment: Remove appetitive stimulus following
unwanted beh.
Review:
Positive - Presence of stimulus
Negative - Absence of stimulus
Reinforcement - Increases behavior
Punishment - decreases behavior
Escape - Removes stimulus
Avoidance - Prevents a stimulus
Shaping: Way to add behavior to a person, if it wasn’t there before
Approximation: Any behavior or step that takes the person closer to intended behavior
THORNDIKE Law of Effect: Responses that are immediately reinforced are more likely to occur
in the future. Responses that are immediately negatively reinforced are less likely to occur
again.
Cognitive Theory:
AARON – BECK - PIAGET
• People have automatic thoughts (spontaneous, negative cognitive distortions)
• 3 Kinds of Negative Thoughts: Self, the world, the future
But, if negative thoughts can be identified, they can be evaluated and replaced
thus changing a person’s response/behavior. There are many types of cognitive
distortions
Transference - How the client feels to the professional
Countertransference - How the professional feels about the client
Assessment
Needs: A referral question, behavioral observation & clinical interview
Behavior Theory:
WATSON - SKINNER - THORNDIKE
• All behavior is learned through conditioning
• Focus on observable behaviors of people or groups
• Dismisses internal mental states
• Dominated psychology during early 20th century
Objective:
• Study human behavior in systematic way
• Does not take into account emotion, subconscious/unconscious (too subjective)
2 Forms of Training/Conditioning:
• Classical
• Operant (subject learns to associate behavior with outcome) Rewards &
Punishment
Schedules of Reinforcement:
• Continuous reinforcement
Good for initial stages of learning
Reinforce subject each time desired behavior occurs
• Partial reinforcement
- Reinforces subject only some of the time the desired behavior occurs
- Fixed Ratio: Reinforced after predetermined # of responses
- Variable Ratio: Response reinforced after variable # of responses (ex.
Slot machine)
- Fixed Interval: Response rewarded after specified amount of time (ex.
Reward every 2 minutes)
- Variable interval: Response rewarded after an unpredictable amount
of time has passed (ex. Reward comes at 2 min, 6 min, 3 min, 10 min,
etc.)
• Operant Conditioning:
- Reinforcement (Increase, do, ‘reinforce’ the behavior)
, - Positive reinforcement: ADD appetitive stimulus following correct
behavior
- Negative reinforcement:
o Escape: Remove unpleasant stimuli following correct beh. (Ex.
Turning off alarm clock) “Do the behavior to escape the bad
thing”
o Active Avoidance: Behavior avoids unpleasant stimulus
(studying to avoid a bad grade) “Do the behavior to avoid the
bad thing”
o Punishment (decrease, stop, behavior)
o Positive Punishment: Add unpleasant stimulus following
unwanted beh.
o Negative Punishment: Remove appetitive stimulus following
unwanted beh.
Review:
Positive - Presence of stimulus
Negative - Absence of stimulus
Reinforcement - Increases behavior
Punishment - decreases behavior
Escape - Removes stimulus
Avoidance - Prevents a stimulus
Shaping: Way to add behavior to a person, if it wasn’t there before
Approximation: Any behavior or step that takes the person closer to intended behavior
THORNDIKE Law of Effect: Responses that are immediately reinforced are more likely to occur
in the future. Responses that are immediately negatively reinforced are less likely to occur
again.
Cognitive Theory:
AARON – BECK - PIAGET
• People have automatic thoughts (spontaneous, negative cognitive distortions)
• 3 Kinds of Negative Thoughts: Self, the world, the future
But, if negative thoughts can be identified, they can be evaluated and replaced
thus changing a person’s response/behavior. There are many types of cognitive
distortions
