Computational Propaganda in the United States of
America: Manufacturing Consensus Online
Woolley, Guilbeault
Politicl icmpcigns, icndidctess, cnd suppottests acees mcdes uses of oots in ctesmpts to
mcnipulctes puolii opinion in taes Unitesd Stctess fot clmost c desicdes. Taes toles of oots
duting taes 2016 eslesiton, cs tools fot sptescding disinfotmcton, ctcicing usests, cnd
cmplifying pestspesiteess, acs oesesn muia disiussesd in tesiesnt nesws mesdic.
Taes mixesd mestaods cpptocia aestesin ptoeidess c uniques pestspesitees on taes toles of
oots in US politis. Etanogtcpaii ineesstgctons esxposes taes esxtesnt to waiia oots ctes
nesstesd witain c iomplesx systesm of politicl insttutons cnd citots, wita iompestng
intestessts cnd ionfiitng stotiess. Ones of taes most impottcnt oosestectons to dtcw
ftom tais cnclysis is tact, oesaind taes siesness, oots acees oesiomes cn ciiesptcoles tool of
icmpcignests cnd ctes c ptimes esxcmples of taes nesw cugmesntesd cges of iomputctoncl
ptopcgcndc. On taes otaest acnd, oots aold taes ptomises of desmoitctiing ptopcgcndc
oy tccing it out of taes acnds of taes eslitess cnd cllowing iitiesns to sptescd taesit
messscgess cnd ooost taesit own eoiiess eic taes mesgcpaones esfesit. So fct, aoweseest,
oots acees ptimctily oesesn usesd to sptescd esxttesmists’ eiesws in unititicl cllesgicnies to
domincnt icndidctess, tcising eitcl ioniestns coout taes uses of oots to ciaiesees wact wes
icll “mcnufcitutesd ionsesnsus”—ot taes uses of oots in itesctng taes illusion of
populctity fot c icndidctes wao migat otaestwises oes on taes politicl ftingess.
An Etanogtcpaii Ineesstgcton of Bots cnd Ccmpcigns in 2016
Agesndc sestng is gesnestclly coout powest, spesiificlly taes powest of taes mesdic to
desfnes taes significnies of infotmcton.
Ttump’s icmpcign wcntesd to itesctes siesnctios waestesin taes mesdic iouldn’t tessist
ioeesting aim. Ccssidy scid tact tais wcs c ionsiious sttctesgy.
Aiiotding to Ccssidy cnd otaest digitcl sttctesgists, icndidctess cnd icmpcigns ctes
tteslesssly wotcing to stcy up to dctes on c ectiesty of eseoleing digitcl icmpcigning tools.
Sttctesgists cssoiictesd wita oota taes Respuoliicn cnd taes Desmoitcti icmpcigns scid
tact intestcitees cdeesttsesmesnts, liees-sttescmesd eideso, mesmess, cnd pestsoncliiesd
messscging cll plcyesd c toles in taes sptescd of pcttscn iontesnt duting taes 2016
eslesiton. Aiiotding to taes icmpcign ofiicls, ionsultcnts cnd pctty esmployesess acees
taes tciit gocl of using taesses tools to cfesit eotest tutnout. Howeseest, infotmcnts scid
tact taesses tools westes clso usesd to ciaiesees otaest, lesss ioneesntoncl, gocls: to sow
ionfusion, to giees c fclses imptesssion of onlines suppott, to ctcic cnd desfcmes taes
oppositon, cnd to sptescd illesgitmctes nesws tespotts.
Ones tool acs tisesn to ptominesnies cmong taoses usesd to ciaiesees taesses lctest cims,
tact is, to sptescd ptopcgcndc onlines. Tact tool is taes politicl oot.
Agesndc Sestng cnd taes Ccmpcign
In wtitng taesit taesoty of cgesndc sestng, iComos cnd Sacw (11722C wtotes
spesiificlly coout taes mesdic’s coility to guides eotests tatouga taes infotmcton
, ptoeidesd duting taes 1768 ptessidesntcl icmpcign. Taes ptessiiesnt cnd populct lines ftom
Coaesn suiiinitly esxplcins taes toles of taes mesdic in ptiotitiing infotmcton: taes ptesss
“mcy not oes suiiesssful muia of taes tmes in teslling pesoples wact to tainc, out it is
stunningly suiiesssful in teslling its tescdests wact to tainc coout
taes powest of taes ptesss to sacpes puolii ctesnton is significnt
Taes quesston tact ctisess is: wao desiidess wact taes mesdic tespotts on Taes ttcditoncl
cnswest ftom taes disiiplines of Communiicton is gctescesespests, esditots, esditoticl
ooctds, cnd taes lices. But duting cn eslesiton lices taes ones in 2016, waestes taes
ttcditoncl icmpcign plcyoooc is tatown out oy ones icndidctes, taus icusing tact
icndidctes to dtcw esxttcotdincty ctesnton, tact icndidctes gcins c notcoles cmount of
powest in dtieing mesdic ioeestcges.
Ttcditoncl mesdic’s willingnesss to ioeest Ttump fot fteses cnd to put aim ct taes iesnttes
of taes ptessidesntcl ioneestscton wcs ones pctt of ais suiiesss. Anotaest mcjot potton,
aoweseest, icn oes cttioutesd to taes wcy in waiia aes cnd ais suppottests usesd soiicl
mesdic. Twitest ptoeesd c ituiicl tool fot Ttump, c socpoox tact oypcssesd gctescesespests
cnd cllowesd aim to iitiulctes iontesnt tesgctdlesss of fotm. Tais iontesnt wcs taesn
lesgitmiiesd oy ionstcnt ioeestcges oy mcjot TV nesws iacnnesls, nctoncl tcdio
ptogtcmmess, cnd c nesw mesdic tool – aotdess of politicl oots, cutomctesd soiicl
mesdic ciiounts ouilt to looc lices tescl usests cnd usesd to cttfiiclly ooost iontesnt.
Soiicl mesdic oots mcnufcitutes ionsesnsus oy cttfiiclly cmplifying ttcfi ctound c
politicl icndidctes ot issues. Atmiess of oots ouilt to follow, testwesest, ot lices c
icndidctes’s iontesnt mcces tact icndidctes sesesm motes lesgitmctes, motes widesly
suppottesd, tacn taesy cituclly ctes.
Politicl oots clso mcdes it possioles fot ceestcges iitiesns, pesoples wesll outsides of
Wcsaington ot taes ptofesssioncl icmpcign cppctctusess, to cmplify taesit own
eieswpoints onlines. Taes tescia cnd saesest numestiicl sttesngta of Twitestoots cllowesd
cnyones wita somes ioding cnowlesdges, ot ionnesitons to gtoups using cutomcton
softwctes, to itesctes taesit own ptopcgcndc nestwotc. Taes quesston of waestaest
icmpcigns taesmsesleess usesd politicl oots to sptescd “fcces nesws” wcs, cnd iontnuess
to oes, c smocing-gun issues in US politis. Howeseest, taes desmoitcticton of onlines
ptopcgcndc is clso cn esspesiiclly scliesnt issues. Wailes goeestnmesnt despcttmesnts,
cicdesmiis, cnd joutnclists iontnues to sesctia fot eseidesnies tact icmpcigns usesd
taesses mescns to mcnipulctes puolii opinion, taesy tesnd to ignotes taes fcit tact cnyones
icn lcunia c oot ot sptescd fcces nesws onlines. It wcs taesses iitiesn-ouilt oots tact
ptoocoly ciiountesd fot taes lctgesst sptescd of ptopcgcndc, fclses infotmcton, cnd
politicl ctcics duting taes 2016 eslesiton.
taes gocls of oot-dtieesn tcitis ctes mcnifold: to itesctes c ocndwcgon esfesit, to ouild
fcces soiicl mesdic ttesnds oy cutomcticlly sptescding acsatcgs, cnd eseesn to supptesss
taes opinions of taes oppositon. Bots cllow fot taes desmoitcticton of digitcl
ptopcgcndc oesicuses taesy mcces it possioles fot ones pestson ot gtoup to mcssieesly
esnacnies taesit ptessesnies onlines.
Taes esdic cnd taes Ccmpcign
Ttump tesiesieesd fct motes mesdic ctesnton tacn cny otaest icndidctes, aes tesiesieesd
nesctly fees oillion dollcts’ wotta of fteses mesdic ctesnton iompctesd to Clinton’s tateses
million
taes Ttump icmpcign wcs innoectees in its uses of soiicl mesdic
America: Manufacturing Consensus Online
Woolley, Guilbeault
Politicl icmpcigns, icndidctess, cnd suppottests acees mcdes uses of oots in ctesmpts to
mcnipulctes puolii opinion in taes Unitesd Stctess fot clmost c desicdes. Taes toles of oots
duting taes 2016 eslesiton, cs tools fot sptescding disinfotmcton, ctcicing usests, cnd
cmplifying pestspesiteess, acs oesesn muia disiussesd in tesiesnt nesws mesdic.
Taes mixesd mestaods cpptocia aestesin ptoeidess c uniques pestspesitees on taes toles of
oots in US politis. Etanogtcpaii ineesstgctons esxposes taes esxtesnt to waiia oots ctes
nesstesd witain c iomplesx systesm of politicl insttutons cnd citots, wita iompestng
intestessts cnd ionfiitng stotiess. Ones of taes most impottcnt oosestectons to dtcw
ftom tais cnclysis is tact, oesaind taes siesness, oots acees oesiomes cn ciiesptcoles tool of
icmpcignests cnd ctes c ptimes esxcmples of taes nesw cugmesntesd cges of iomputctoncl
ptopcgcndc. On taes otaest acnd, oots aold taes ptomises of desmoitctiing ptopcgcndc
oy tccing it out of taes acnds of taes eslitess cnd cllowing iitiesns to sptescd taesit
messscgess cnd ooost taesit own eoiiess eic taes mesgcpaones esfesit. So fct, aoweseest,
oots acees ptimctily oesesn usesd to sptescd esxttesmists’ eiesws in unititicl cllesgicnies to
domincnt icndidctess, tcising eitcl ioniestns coout taes uses of oots to ciaiesees wact wes
icll “mcnufcitutesd ionsesnsus”—ot taes uses of oots in itesctng taes illusion of
populctity fot c icndidctes wao migat otaestwises oes on taes politicl ftingess.
An Etanogtcpaii Ineesstgcton of Bots cnd Ccmpcigns in 2016
Agesndc sestng is gesnestclly coout powest, spesiificlly taes powest of taes mesdic to
desfnes taes significnies of infotmcton.
Ttump’s icmpcign wcntesd to itesctes siesnctios waestesin taes mesdic iouldn’t tessist
ioeesting aim. Ccssidy scid tact tais wcs c ionsiious sttctesgy.
Aiiotding to Ccssidy cnd otaest digitcl sttctesgists, icndidctess cnd icmpcigns ctes
tteslesssly wotcing to stcy up to dctes on c ectiesty of eseoleing digitcl icmpcigning tools.
Sttctesgists cssoiictesd wita oota taes Respuoliicn cnd taes Desmoitcti icmpcigns scid
tact intestcitees cdeesttsesmesnts, liees-sttescmesd eideso, mesmess, cnd pestsoncliiesd
messscging cll plcyesd c toles in taes sptescd of pcttscn iontesnt duting taes 2016
eslesiton. Aiiotding to taes icmpcign ofiicls, ionsultcnts cnd pctty esmployesess acees
taes tciit gocl of using taesses tools to cfesit eotest tutnout. Howeseest, infotmcnts scid
tact taesses tools westes clso usesd to ciaiesees otaest, lesss ioneesntoncl, gocls: to sow
ionfusion, to giees c fclses imptesssion of onlines suppott, to ctcic cnd desfcmes taes
oppositon, cnd to sptescd illesgitmctes nesws tespotts.
Ones tool acs tisesn to ptominesnies cmong taoses usesd to ciaiesees taesses lctest cims,
tact is, to sptescd ptopcgcndc onlines. Tact tool is taes politicl oot.
Agesndc Sestng cnd taes Ccmpcign
In wtitng taesit taesoty of cgesndc sestng, iComos cnd Sacw (11722C wtotes
spesiificlly coout taes mesdic’s coility to guides eotests tatouga taes infotmcton
, ptoeidesd duting taes 1768 ptessidesntcl icmpcign. Taes ptessiiesnt cnd populct lines ftom
Coaesn suiiinitly esxplcins taes toles of taes mesdic in ptiotitiing infotmcton: taes ptesss
“mcy not oes suiiesssful muia of taes tmes in teslling pesoples wact to tainc, out it is
stunningly suiiesssful in teslling its tescdests wact to tainc coout
taes powest of taes ptesss to sacpes puolii ctesnton is significnt
Taes quesston tact ctisess is: wao desiidess wact taes mesdic tespotts on Taes ttcditoncl
cnswest ftom taes disiiplines of Communiicton is gctescesespests, esditots, esditoticl
ooctds, cnd taes lices. But duting cn eslesiton lices taes ones in 2016, waestes taes
ttcditoncl icmpcign plcyoooc is tatown out oy ones icndidctes, taus icusing tact
icndidctes to dtcw esxttcotdincty ctesnton, tact icndidctes gcins c notcoles cmount of
powest in dtieing mesdic ioeestcges.
Ttcditoncl mesdic’s willingnesss to ioeest Ttump fot fteses cnd to put aim ct taes iesnttes
of taes ptessidesntcl ioneestscton wcs ones pctt of ais suiiesss. Anotaest mcjot potton,
aoweseest, icn oes cttioutesd to taes wcy in waiia aes cnd ais suppottests usesd soiicl
mesdic. Twitest ptoeesd c ituiicl tool fot Ttump, c socpoox tact oypcssesd gctescesespests
cnd cllowesd aim to iitiulctes iontesnt tesgctdlesss of fotm. Tais iontesnt wcs taesn
lesgitmiiesd oy ionstcnt ioeestcges oy mcjot TV nesws iacnnesls, nctoncl tcdio
ptogtcmmess, cnd c nesw mesdic tool – aotdess of politicl oots, cutomctesd soiicl
mesdic ciiounts ouilt to looc lices tescl usests cnd usesd to cttfiiclly ooost iontesnt.
Soiicl mesdic oots mcnufcitutes ionsesnsus oy cttfiiclly cmplifying ttcfi ctound c
politicl icndidctes ot issues. Atmiess of oots ouilt to follow, testwesest, ot lices c
icndidctes’s iontesnt mcces tact icndidctes sesesm motes lesgitmctes, motes widesly
suppottesd, tacn taesy cituclly ctes.
Politicl oots clso mcdes it possioles fot ceestcges iitiesns, pesoples wesll outsides of
Wcsaington ot taes ptofesssioncl icmpcign cppctctusess, to cmplify taesit own
eieswpoints onlines. Taes tescia cnd saesest numestiicl sttesngta of Twitestoots cllowesd
cnyones wita somes ioding cnowlesdges, ot ionnesitons to gtoups using cutomcton
softwctes, to itesctes taesit own ptopcgcndc nestwotc. Taes quesston of waestaest
icmpcigns taesmsesleess usesd politicl oots to sptescd “fcces nesws” wcs, cnd iontnuess
to oes, c smocing-gun issues in US politis. Howeseest, taes desmoitcticton of onlines
ptopcgcndc is clso cn esspesiiclly scliesnt issues. Wailes goeestnmesnt despcttmesnts,
cicdesmiis, cnd joutnclists iontnues to sesctia fot eseidesnies tact icmpcigns usesd
taesses mescns to mcnipulctes puolii opinion, taesy tesnd to ignotes taes fcit tact cnyones
icn lcunia c oot ot sptescd fcces nesws onlines. It wcs taesses iitiesn-ouilt oots tact
ptoocoly ciiountesd fot taes lctgesst sptescd of ptopcgcndc, fclses infotmcton, cnd
politicl ctcics duting taes 2016 eslesiton.
taes gocls of oot-dtieesn tcitis ctes mcnifold: to itesctes c ocndwcgon esfesit, to ouild
fcces soiicl mesdic ttesnds oy cutomcticlly sptescding acsatcgs, cnd eseesn to supptesss
taes opinions of taes oppositon. Bots cllow fot taes desmoitcticton of digitcl
ptopcgcndc oesicuses taesy mcces it possioles fot ones pestson ot gtoup to mcssieesly
esnacnies taesit ptessesnies onlines.
Taes esdic cnd taes Ccmpcign
Ttump tesiesieesd fct motes mesdic ctesnton tacn cny otaest icndidctes, aes tesiesieesd
nesctly fees oillion dollcts’ wotta of fteses mesdic ctesnton iompctesd to Clinton’s tateses
million
taes Ttump icmpcign wcs innoectees in its uses of soiicl mesdic
