Pharmacology
Kenya Medical Training College
Branches of pharmacology
1. Pharacotherapeutic: ( clinical pharmacology)
It deals with relative effect of drugs in the human system for various
disorders or it deals with the effect of a drug that the Dr. orders for
treating a human patient
―The study of drug action in man‖.
2. Pharmacodynamic:
Which deal with experimental (science pertaining to theories of drug
action or it deals with the interactions between chemical components of
living system and foreign chemical including drugs that enter living
organism.
―What the drug does to the body‖
2
3. Pharmacokinetics:
Which is the study of drug’s alteration during its way through the body or
it's the study of the fate of drug in the body as it is absorbed, distributed,
bound to or localized in tissues, biotransformed and excreted.
The science concerns itself with:
1. Drug absorption and distribution.
2. Drug plasma concentration.
3. Therapeutic plasma levels.
4. Concentration of the active drug at the target site.
5. Rate of metabolism.
6. Rate of excretion.
These parameters in turn affected by:
1. Physiochmeical nature of the drug e.g. lipid solubility.
2. Formulation of the drug.
3. Route of administration.
4. binding of the drug to plasma and/or tissue (bioavialability)
5. Individual characteristics of the patient.
6. Concomitant diseases.
7. Concomitant administration of food or other drugs.
❖Sources of drugs:
Drugs and biologic products are derived from 4 main sources:
1. Plants: examples of which are digitalis.
2. Animals and human: from which drugs such as insulin,
epinephrine are obtained.
,3. Minerals or mineral products: examples such as iodine and iron.
4. Chemicals: made in laboratories. They are pure drugs and some of
them are simple such as sodium bicarbonate where others are
3
complex synthesis such as sulfonomides and
adrenocorticosteroids.
❖Active constituents of plant drugs:
The leaves, roots, seeds and other parts of plants may be dried or
otherwise processed for use as medicine and they are known as crude
drugs.
On separation of these active constituents, the resulting pure form are:
1. More potent.
2. Usually produce effects more reliable than those of the crude drugs.
3. More poisonous and the dose must be smaller.
Common Drug Preparations:
1. Solutions and Suspensions:
❖ Aqueous Solutions: have one or more substance dissolved in
water e.g. Epinephrine nasal sol.
❖ Aqueous suspensions: are preparations of finally divided drugs
either intended for suspension or already in suspension in some
suitable liquid vehicle.
❖ Sterile suspensions are intended for intramuscular or
subcutaneous injections but they can’t be given intravenously or
intrathecally into spinal fluid.
❖ Oral suspensions are NOT sterile and must NOT be injected.
N.B.: - Suspensions tend to settle slowly and should be CHAKED
WELL before use to provide uniform distribution of the drug.
❖ Elixir: clear fluid containing water and alcohol designed for oral
use, usually has a sweetener added.
❖ Syrup: medication dissolved in a concentrated sugar solution.
4
2. Dosage Forms:-
Capsules, controlled- release or sustained- release capsules, tablets, pills
and troches are used to provide a drug or mixture of drugs into definite
doses and avoid the inconvenience of preparing the dose from dry
powder.
- Capsules and coated tablets are a convenient way of giving
drugs that have unpleasant taste.
❖Capsules:- are solid dosage form for oral use medication in a powder,
liquid or oil form are incased in gelatin shell, capsule colored to avoid
,mistakes in product identification.
❖ Tablet: Powered dosage form compressed into hard disks or cylinders.
In addition to primary drug, they contain binders (adhesive to allow
powder to stick together) and disintegrates (to promote tablet
dissolution).
NOTES
1- Some gelatin capsules and tablets may be coated with substances that
resist the action of gastric juice so that will not disintegrate until they
reach the alkaline secretions of the intestine.
2- Sustained – release dosage forms contain small particles of the drug
coated with materials that require a varying amount of time to dissolve.
This provides for a long continuous period of absorption and effect.
❖ Pill: Solid dosage form containing one or more drug. Recently, they
were replaced by tablets.
❖Ampoules and vials: Ampoules and vials contain powder or liquid
drug usually intended for injection.
5
❖Disposable Syringes: Disposable syringes containing single dose of
drug preparations are widely used.
❖Large volume intravenous Solutions:- In glass, flexible plastic or
semi-rigid plastic usually of 250, 500, 100 ml e.g. 0.9% sodium
chloride.
❖Intermittent IV. Solution: These solutions are similar to the I.V.
solutions except they come in smaller volumes.
3-Additional Formulations:-
❖Drops: are aqueous solutions that anesthetize, soothe or medicate
eyes, ears, or nose.
❖Installations: are aqueous solution instilled into the body cavities or
wound and allowed to dwell there in contact with tissue.
❖Foams and aerosols: are powders or solutions for spraying skin as
topical anesthesia to soothe or protect or inhalation for bronchodilation.
4- Others:
❖Lotions: Liquid suspensions or dispersions used for external
applications e.g. calamine lotion.
❖Creams: aqueous and oily emulsions to soothe skin.
❖Ointments: semisolid preparations of medical substances in some
type of base such as petrolatum lanolin used for their soothing or
bacteriostatic effect. Ophthalmic ointment: Are sterile (e.g.
Synthomycin) ophthalmic ointment.
❖Pasts: Ointment- like preparations suited for only external
, application. e.g. Zinc oxide past.
6
❖Suppositories:- are mixtures of drugs with a firm base that can be
molded in shapes suitable for insertion manually or with an applicator
into body cavity or orifice e.g. Aminophylline supp.
N.B. : they should be kept cool.
Drug Absorption, Distribution metabolism and Excretion
❖Absorption: Is the process that involves the movement of drug
molecules from the site of entry into the body to the circulating fluid.
❖The process begins at the site of administration and is essential (to
the subsequent processes, distribution, metabolism and excretion).
❖Absorption as a process varies according to the route of administration,
dosage form and the dose of the drug.
❖Factors Affecting Drug Absorption:-
1- Nature of the absorbing surface (cell membrane), through
which the drug must traverse.
• The drug molecule may pass through a single layer of cells
(intestinal epithelium) faster than several layers of cells (skin).
• Size of the absorbing surface.
N.B.: The more extensive the absorbing surface, the greater the
absorption and more rapid effect of the drug.
2- Blood flow to the site of administration.
Rich blood supply (sublingual) enhances absorption whereas;
poorly vascular site (subcutaneous) delays it.
For example, patient in shock may not respond to (IM)
administration of drugs because of poor peripheral circulation.
N.B. : Drugs injected (IV) are placed directly into the circulatory system.
3- Solubility of the drug.
7
- In order to be absorbed drug must be in solution.
- The more soluble the drug, the more rapidly it will be absorbed.
N.B.: chemicals and minerals that form insoluble precipitates in the GIT
or drugs that are insoluble in water or lipids can’t be absorbed.
- Parenterally administered drugs prepared in oily vehicle will be more
slowly absorbed than drugs dissolved in water or isotonic sodium
chloride.
4- Influence of pH:
Drugs that are acidic (e.g. Aspirin) become relatively undissociated in an
acidic environment such as the stomach. And therefore can readily
diffuse across the membrane into the circulation. In contrast, a basic
Kenya Medical Training College
Branches of pharmacology
1. Pharacotherapeutic: ( clinical pharmacology)
It deals with relative effect of drugs in the human system for various
disorders or it deals with the effect of a drug that the Dr. orders for
treating a human patient
―The study of drug action in man‖.
2. Pharmacodynamic:
Which deal with experimental (science pertaining to theories of drug
action or it deals with the interactions between chemical components of
living system and foreign chemical including drugs that enter living
organism.
―What the drug does to the body‖
2
3. Pharmacokinetics:
Which is the study of drug’s alteration during its way through the body or
it's the study of the fate of drug in the body as it is absorbed, distributed,
bound to or localized in tissues, biotransformed and excreted.
The science concerns itself with:
1. Drug absorption and distribution.
2. Drug plasma concentration.
3. Therapeutic plasma levels.
4. Concentration of the active drug at the target site.
5. Rate of metabolism.
6. Rate of excretion.
These parameters in turn affected by:
1. Physiochmeical nature of the drug e.g. lipid solubility.
2. Formulation of the drug.
3. Route of administration.
4. binding of the drug to plasma and/or tissue (bioavialability)
5. Individual characteristics of the patient.
6. Concomitant diseases.
7. Concomitant administration of food or other drugs.
❖Sources of drugs:
Drugs and biologic products are derived from 4 main sources:
1. Plants: examples of which are digitalis.
2. Animals and human: from which drugs such as insulin,
epinephrine are obtained.
,3. Minerals or mineral products: examples such as iodine and iron.
4. Chemicals: made in laboratories. They are pure drugs and some of
them are simple such as sodium bicarbonate where others are
3
complex synthesis such as sulfonomides and
adrenocorticosteroids.
❖Active constituents of plant drugs:
The leaves, roots, seeds and other parts of plants may be dried or
otherwise processed for use as medicine and they are known as crude
drugs.
On separation of these active constituents, the resulting pure form are:
1. More potent.
2. Usually produce effects more reliable than those of the crude drugs.
3. More poisonous and the dose must be smaller.
Common Drug Preparations:
1. Solutions and Suspensions:
❖ Aqueous Solutions: have one or more substance dissolved in
water e.g. Epinephrine nasal sol.
❖ Aqueous suspensions: are preparations of finally divided drugs
either intended for suspension or already in suspension in some
suitable liquid vehicle.
❖ Sterile suspensions are intended for intramuscular or
subcutaneous injections but they can’t be given intravenously or
intrathecally into spinal fluid.
❖ Oral suspensions are NOT sterile and must NOT be injected.
N.B.: - Suspensions tend to settle slowly and should be CHAKED
WELL before use to provide uniform distribution of the drug.
❖ Elixir: clear fluid containing water and alcohol designed for oral
use, usually has a sweetener added.
❖ Syrup: medication dissolved in a concentrated sugar solution.
4
2. Dosage Forms:-
Capsules, controlled- release or sustained- release capsules, tablets, pills
and troches are used to provide a drug or mixture of drugs into definite
doses and avoid the inconvenience of preparing the dose from dry
powder.
- Capsules and coated tablets are a convenient way of giving
drugs that have unpleasant taste.
❖Capsules:- are solid dosage form for oral use medication in a powder,
liquid or oil form are incased in gelatin shell, capsule colored to avoid
,mistakes in product identification.
❖ Tablet: Powered dosage form compressed into hard disks or cylinders.
In addition to primary drug, they contain binders (adhesive to allow
powder to stick together) and disintegrates (to promote tablet
dissolution).
NOTES
1- Some gelatin capsules and tablets may be coated with substances that
resist the action of gastric juice so that will not disintegrate until they
reach the alkaline secretions of the intestine.
2- Sustained – release dosage forms contain small particles of the drug
coated with materials that require a varying amount of time to dissolve.
This provides for a long continuous period of absorption and effect.
❖ Pill: Solid dosage form containing one or more drug. Recently, they
were replaced by tablets.
❖Ampoules and vials: Ampoules and vials contain powder or liquid
drug usually intended for injection.
5
❖Disposable Syringes: Disposable syringes containing single dose of
drug preparations are widely used.
❖Large volume intravenous Solutions:- In glass, flexible plastic or
semi-rigid plastic usually of 250, 500, 100 ml e.g. 0.9% sodium
chloride.
❖Intermittent IV. Solution: These solutions are similar to the I.V.
solutions except they come in smaller volumes.
3-Additional Formulations:-
❖Drops: are aqueous solutions that anesthetize, soothe or medicate
eyes, ears, or nose.
❖Installations: are aqueous solution instilled into the body cavities or
wound and allowed to dwell there in contact with tissue.
❖Foams and aerosols: are powders or solutions for spraying skin as
topical anesthesia to soothe or protect or inhalation for bronchodilation.
4- Others:
❖Lotions: Liquid suspensions or dispersions used for external
applications e.g. calamine lotion.
❖Creams: aqueous and oily emulsions to soothe skin.
❖Ointments: semisolid preparations of medical substances in some
type of base such as petrolatum lanolin used for their soothing or
bacteriostatic effect. Ophthalmic ointment: Are sterile (e.g.
Synthomycin) ophthalmic ointment.
❖Pasts: Ointment- like preparations suited for only external
, application. e.g. Zinc oxide past.
6
❖Suppositories:- are mixtures of drugs with a firm base that can be
molded in shapes suitable for insertion manually or with an applicator
into body cavity or orifice e.g. Aminophylline supp.
N.B. : they should be kept cool.
Drug Absorption, Distribution metabolism and Excretion
❖Absorption: Is the process that involves the movement of drug
molecules from the site of entry into the body to the circulating fluid.
❖The process begins at the site of administration and is essential (to
the subsequent processes, distribution, metabolism and excretion).
❖Absorption as a process varies according to the route of administration,
dosage form and the dose of the drug.
❖Factors Affecting Drug Absorption:-
1- Nature of the absorbing surface (cell membrane), through
which the drug must traverse.
• The drug molecule may pass through a single layer of cells
(intestinal epithelium) faster than several layers of cells (skin).
• Size of the absorbing surface.
N.B.: The more extensive the absorbing surface, the greater the
absorption and more rapid effect of the drug.
2- Blood flow to the site of administration.
Rich blood supply (sublingual) enhances absorption whereas;
poorly vascular site (subcutaneous) delays it.
For example, patient in shock may not respond to (IM)
administration of drugs because of poor peripheral circulation.
N.B. : Drugs injected (IV) are placed directly into the circulatory system.
3- Solubility of the drug.
7
- In order to be absorbed drug must be in solution.
- The more soluble the drug, the more rapidly it will be absorbed.
N.B.: chemicals and minerals that form insoluble precipitates in the GIT
or drugs that are insoluble in water or lipids can’t be absorbed.
- Parenterally administered drugs prepared in oily vehicle will be more
slowly absorbed than drugs dissolved in water or isotonic sodium
chloride.
4- Influence of pH:
Drugs that are acidic (e.g. Aspirin) become relatively undissociated in an
acidic environment such as the stomach. And therefore can readily
diffuse across the membrane into the circulation. In contrast, a basic
