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GENERAL BOTANY
INTRODUCTION TO GENERAL BOTANY type of environment are the presence of
stomata and waxy cuticle.
Botany - concerned with the scientific study of
plants including their physiology, structure, SURVEY OF THE PLANT GROUPS
genetics, ecology, distribution, classification,
and economic importance. I. NON-VASCULAR PLANTS
- Small compact green plants
SUBDIVISIONS OF BOTANY - With chlorophyll a and b, starch,
cellulose cell walls and motile sperm
Plant Anatomy – study of the internal structure cells
of plants. - No true vascular system – water is
Plant Physiology – study of plant and behaviour, absorbed by capillary action
encompassing all the dynamic processes of - Lifecycle with dominant gametophyte
growth, metabolism,reproduction, defense, generation.
and communication that account for plants
being alive (Salisbury & Ross, 1992; Baluška et al., Bryophytes
2006; Scott, 2008). - reproduce by way of spores
Plant Taxonomy – science that finds, identifies, - no true roots and leaves; extremely
describes, classifies, and names plants. dependent in water for reproduction and
Plant Systematics - its primary goal is to survival.
reconstruct the evolutionary history of plant life. - In bryophytes, gamete develops within
It divides plants into taxonomic groups, using gametangia
morphological, anatomical, embryological, • Male gametangium: antheridium –
chromosomal and chemical data. produce flagellated sperm
Plant Geography - the study of the distributions • Female gametangium: archegonium –
of plants and animals through time. produces egg
Plant Ecology - examines the relationships • Egg is fertilized within archegonium,
between plants and their physical and biotic zygote develops in the protective tissue
environment. of the archegonium
Plant Morphology - is the general term for the -consists of gametophyte and sporophyte.
study of the morphology (physical form and Gametophyte (haploid) – plant body
external structure) of plants. containing gametangia (sexual generation)
Plant Genetics - the study of genes, genetic Sporophyte (diploid) – plant body
variation, and heredity specifically in plants. containing sporangia.
Cell Biology - the study of cell structure and - Short lived, produces haploid spores by
function, and revolves around the concept that meiosis that germinates into
the cell is the fundamental unit of life. gametophyte (alteration of generation)
Economic Botany - the study of the relationship
between people (individuals and cultures) and
plants.
Ethnobotany - the study of a region's plants and
their practical uses through the traditional
knowledge of a local culture and people.
INTRODUCTION TO THE PLANT BODY
Plants are multicellular eukaryotes with
cellulose rich cell walls, chloroplast
containing chlorophyll a and b and
carotenoids and starch as their primary
food reserves
Features that have let plants colonize many
,CLASSIFICATIONS OF NON-VASCULAR PLANTS
B. Seeded Vascular Plants
Division Bryophyta - Reduced gametophyte is protected in
Mosses ovules and pollen grains
Division Hepatophyta - Can be classified as;
Liverworts Gymnosperms – not enclosed in ovaries,
Division Anthocerophyta typically cones
Hornworts Angiosperms – bear seeds enclosed in an
ovary; flowering plants.
Sphagnum (Peat Moss)
– forms extensive deposits of partially
decayed organic material known as peat.
- Plays an important role in Earth’s carbon
cycle.
II. VASCULAR PLANTS
- Life cycle with dominant sporophyte
generation
- With vascular tissues: xylem and phloem
- With true roots and leaves
Xylem and Phloem in land plants makes long
possible distance of transport of water and CLASSIFICATIONS OF SEED PLANTS
food possible.
Gymnosperms
CLASSIFICATION OF VASCULAR PLANTS Division Ginkgophyta
according to presence of seed
Genus Ginkgo
Division Cycadophyta
A. Seedless Vascular Plants
Genus Cycas
- Microphylls and megaphylls
Division Gnetophyta
- Reproduce by spore production in
Genus Gnetum
specialized leaves – sporophylls
Genus Ephedra
- The leaf evolved as the main
Genus Welwitschia
photosynthetic organ of the plant;
Division Coniferophyta
however, photosynthesis can happen in
Genus Pinus
stem.
Angiosperms
- Microphylls originated from sporangia
Division Anthophyta
supported by single, unbranched
Class Monocotyledones (monocots)
strands of vascular tissue.
Class Dicotyledones (dicots)
- Megaphylls have branched vascular
systems and may have evolved by the
The main ancestor of land plants is the
fusion of branched stems.
ancestral green alga.
CLASSIFICATION OF SEEDLESS VASCULAR
CLASSIFICATIONS OF SEED PLANTS
PLANTS according to its lifespan
Division Psilophyta • Annuals - plants that reproduce and die in
Genus Psilotum (whisk fern) one growing season.
Division Lycophyta • Biennials grow in their first growing season
Genus Lycopodium (club mosses) and reproduce and die in a second season.
Genus Selaginella (spike moss) • Perennials grow for several seasons.
Division Sphenophyta polycarpic - reproduce year after year, once
Genus Equisetum (horsetail) reaching sexual maturity.
Division Pterophyta monocarpic - grow vegetatively for a number
Genus Polypodium (ferns) of seasons, then reproduce once and die.
, PLANT ORGANIZATION THE EUKARYOTIC CELL: STRUCTURE AND
FUNCTION
I. THE ORGANISM
A. The Shoot System Prokaryotes – single celled organism that lacks
- Above ground usually, elevates the a nucleus and membrane bound
plant above the soil. organelles. (bacteria)
- Functions for photosynthesis, Eukaryotes – organisms that have a well
reproduction, dispersal, food and water developed nucleus enclosed with
conduction nuclear envelope.
B. The Root System
- Underground usually, anchor the plant PARTS OF THE PLANT CELL
in the soil
- Funtions includes absorption and
conduction of water and nutrients, as
well as food storage.
II. THE ORGANS
A. Roots
B. Stems
C. Leaves
D. Flowers and fruits
III. THE TISSUES
A. Dermal Tissue (Simple Permanent)
B. Ground Tissue (Simple
Permanent)
C. Vascular Tissue (Complex
Permanent)
D. Meristematic Tissue CELL MEMBRANE
Importance;
ANGIOSPERM CLASSES - Defines the boundary of the cell from
intracellular fluid and extracellular fluid.
MONOCOTS - Controls the passage of materials in and
- Root xylem and phloem in a ring out of the cells
- Vascular bundles scattered in stem - Govern the interaction of the cell with
- Leaf veins are parallel patterned other cells
- Flowers have multiple of threes Structure;
EUDICOT Fluid Mosaic Model
- Root phloem between arms of xylem - Two layered phospholipid bilayer
- Vascular bundles in distinct ring in stem membrane with anchored proteins
- Leaf veins form a net pattern Components;
- Flowers have multiple of fives Membrane Lipids
• Phospholipids
Method in Sectioning - Constitute 75% of membrane lipids
- Occur as two layers (phospholipid
Longitudinal Section bilayer)
- Tangential Section – longitudinal section
of a stem. Near the epidermis. Composition of Phospholipid:
- Radial Section – longitudinal section of a
stem that follows the radius of the stem. Head – glycerol and phosphate unit,
It follows and is parallel to a vascular hydrophilic and faces the fluid part of the cell.
ray. Tail – two fatty acid chains,
Cross/Transverse Section - a section formed by hydrophobic; oriented away from the fluid part
a plane cutting at right angles to an axis. of the cell.
, PROPERTIES OF MEMBRANES
• Cholesterol Fluidity of Membranes
- Constitute 20% of the membrane lipids - Permits movement of membrane pieces
- Gives fluidity to the cell membrane - Allow vesicle formation and fusion
• Glycolipids - Important for;
- Constitute 5% of the membrane lipids 1.Transport of materials by:
- 2 fatty acids + short carbohydrate • Exocytosis – release of materials
chains outside (secretion)
• Endocytosis – materials taken inside
Membrane Proteins o Phagocytosis – solid
Two kinds of Membrane Protein o Pinocytosis – liquid
A. Integral Proteins 2.Compartmentalization
- Pass all the way through the cell - each compartment is specialized for a
membrane particular process producing a particular
B. Peripheral Proteins substance.
- Adhere to the surface of the cell
membrane Permeability of the Membrane
- Glycoprotein – protein + short - Selectively permeable
carbohydrate chains • Hydrophobic substances, smaller
molecules like water may diffuse
FUNCTIONS OF MEMBRANE PROTEIN easily through the phospholipid
• Receptors – bind to chemical bilayer.
messengers such as hormones, bind to • Large hydrophilic substances like
receptor results to a physiological amino acid, glucose, and ions
change in the cell, and important cell need to pass through membrane
for communication. proteins by facilitated diffusion or
• Enzymes – act as catalysts for chemical active transport.
reaction to take place.
• Anchor proteins – physically link PROTOPLASM
intracellular structures. - All substances inside the cell membrane
• Transport Proteins except the vacuole; incudes the
3 Kinds of Transport Proteins nucleus and the cytoplasm.
Channel Protein – allow the passage of
water and solutes to enter or exit the CYTOPLASM
cell. - Part between the cell membrane,
Carrier Protein – transport substances nucleus and or the vacuole.
into and out of the cell; can change its
orientation COMPONENTS OF CYTOPLASM
Protein Pumps – transport substances • Cytosol – fluid portion that contains
against its concentration gradient. water, dissolved solutes and
suspended particles.
• Organelles – subcellular structures
TWO TYPES OF ORGANELLES
Membranous Organelles
- Surrounded by one or two bilayer lipid
membrane
- Includes the endomembrane system
Non-Membranous Organelles
- Lack membranes and directly in
contact with the cytosol
GENERAL BOTANY
INTRODUCTION TO GENERAL BOTANY type of environment are the presence of
stomata and waxy cuticle.
Botany - concerned with the scientific study of
plants including their physiology, structure, SURVEY OF THE PLANT GROUPS
genetics, ecology, distribution, classification,
and economic importance. I. NON-VASCULAR PLANTS
- Small compact green plants
SUBDIVISIONS OF BOTANY - With chlorophyll a and b, starch,
cellulose cell walls and motile sperm
Plant Anatomy – study of the internal structure cells
of plants. - No true vascular system – water is
Plant Physiology – study of plant and behaviour, absorbed by capillary action
encompassing all the dynamic processes of - Lifecycle with dominant gametophyte
growth, metabolism,reproduction, defense, generation.
and communication that account for plants
being alive (Salisbury & Ross, 1992; Baluška et al., Bryophytes
2006; Scott, 2008). - reproduce by way of spores
Plant Taxonomy – science that finds, identifies, - no true roots and leaves; extremely
describes, classifies, and names plants. dependent in water for reproduction and
Plant Systematics - its primary goal is to survival.
reconstruct the evolutionary history of plant life. - In bryophytes, gamete develops within
It divides plants into taxonomic groups, using gametangia
morphological, anatomical, embryological, • Male gametangium: antheridium –
chromosomal and chemical data. produce flagellated sperm
Plant Geography - the study of the distributions • Female gametangium: archegonium –
of plants and animals through time. produces egg
Plant Ecology - examines the relationships • Egg is fertilized within archegonium,
between plants and their physical and biotic zygote develops in the protective tissue
environment. of the archegonium
Plant Morphology - is the general term for the -consists of gametophyte and sporophyte.
study of the morphology (physical form and Gametophyte (haploid) – plant body
external structure) of plants. containing gametangia (sexual generation)
Plant Genetics - the study of genes, genetic Sporophyte (diploid) – plant body
variation, and heredity specifically in plants. containing sporangia.
Cell Biology - the study of cell structure and - Short lived, produces haploid spores by
function, and revolves around the concept that meiosis that germinates into
the cell is the fundamental unit of life. gametophyte (alteration of generation)
Economic Botany - the study of the relationship
between people (individuals and cultures) and
plants.
Ethnobotany - the study of a region's plants and
their practical uses through the traditional
knowledge of a local culture and people.
INTRODUCTION TO THE PLANT BODY
Plants are multicellular eukaryotes with
cellulose rich cell walls, chloroplast
containing chlorophyll a and b and
carotenoids and starch as their primary
food reserves
Features that have let plants colonize many
,CLASSIFICATIONS OF NON-VASCULAR PLANTS
B. Seeded Vascular Plants
Division Bryophyta - Reduced gametophyte is protected in
Mosses ovules and pollen grains
Division Hepatophyta - Can be classified as;
Liverworts Gymnosperms – not enclosed in ovaries,
Division Anthocerophyta typically cones
Hornworts Angiosperms – bear seeds enclosed in an
ovary; flowering plants.
Sphagnum (Peat Moss)
– forms extensive deposits of partially
decayed organic material known as peat.
- Plays an important role in Earth’s carbon
cycle.
II. VASCULAR PLANTS
- Life cycle with dominant sporophyte
generation
- With vascular tissues: xylem and phloem
- With true roots and leaves
Xylem and Phloem in land plants makes long
possible distance of transport of water and CLASSIFICATIONS OF SEED PLANTS
food possible.
Gymnosperms
CLASSIFICATION OF VASCULAR PLANTS Division Ginkgophyta
according to presence of seed
Genus Ginkgo
Division Cycadophyta
A. Seedless Vascular Plants
Genus Cycas
- Microphylls and megaphylls
Division Gnetophyta
- Reproduce by spore production in
Genus Gnetum
specialized leaves – sporophylls
Genus Ephedra
- The leaf evolved as the main
Genus Welwitschia
photosynthetic organ of the plant;
Division Coniferophyta
however, photosynthesis can happen in
Genus Pinus
stem.
Angiosperms
- Microphylls originated from sporangia
Division Anthophyta
supported by single, unbranched
Class Monocotyledones (monocots)
strands of vascular tissue.
Class Dicotyledones (dicots)
- Megaphylls have branched vascular
systems and may have evolved by the
The main ancestor of land plants is the
fusion of branched stems.
ancestral green alga.
CLASSIFICATION OF SEEDLESS VASCULAR
CLASSIFICATIONS OF SEED PLANTS
PLANTS according to its lifespan
Division Psilophyta • Annuals - plants that reproduce and die in
Genus Psilotum (whisk fern) one growing season.
Division Lycophyta • Biennials grow in their first growing season
Genus Lycopodium (club mosses) and reproduce and die in a second season.
Genus Selaginella (spike moss) • Perennials grow for several seasons.
Division Sphenophyta polycarpic - reproduce year after year, once
Genus Equisetum (horsetail) reaching sexual maturity.
Division Pterophyta monocarpic - grow vegetatively for a number
Genus Polypodium (ferns) of seasons, then reproduce once and die.
, PLANT ORGANIZATION THE EUKARYOTIC CELL: STRUCTURE AND
FUNCTION
I. THE ORGANISM
A. The Shoot System Prokaryotes – single celled organism that lacks
- Above ground usually, elevates the a nucleus and membrane bound
plant above the soil. organelles. (bacteria)
- Functions for photosynthesis, Eukaryotes – organisms that have a well
reproduction, dispersal, food and water developed nucleus enclosed with
conduction nuclear envelope.
B. The Root System
- Underground usually, anchor the plant PARTS OF THE PLANT CELL
in the soil
- Funtions includes absorption and
conduction of water and nutrients, as
well as food storage.
II. THE ORGANS
A. Roots
B. Stems
C. Leaves
D. Flowers and fruits
III. THE TISSUES
A. Dermal Tissue (Simple Permanent)
B. Ground Tissue (Simple
Permanent)
C. Vascular Tissue (Complex
Permanent)
D. Meristematic Tissue CELL MEMBRANE
Importance;
ANGIOSPERM CLASSES - Defines the boundary of the cell from
intracellular fluid and extracellular fluid.
MONOCOTS - Controls the passage of materials in and
- Root xylem and phloem in a ring out of the cells
- Vascular bundles scattered in stem - Govern the interaction of the cell with
- Leaf veins are parallel patterned other cells
- Flowers have multiple of threes Structure;
EUDICOT Fluid Mosaic Model
- Root phloem between arms of xylem - Two layered phospholipid bilayer
- Vascular bundles in distinct ring in stem membrane with anchored proteins
- Leaf veins form a net pattern Components;
- Flowers have multiple of fives Membrane Lipids
• Phospholipids
Method in Sectioning - Constitute 75% of membrane lipids
- Occur as two layers (phospholipid
Longitudinal Section bilayer)
- Tangential Section – longitudinal section
of a stem. Near the epidermis. Composition of Phospholipid:
- Radial Section – longitudinal section of a
stem that follows the radius of the stem. Head – glycerol and phosphate unit,
It follows and is parallel to a vascular hydrophilic and faces the fluid part of the cell.
ray. Tail – two fatty acid chains,
Cross/Transverse Section - a section formed by hydrophobic; oriented away from the fluid part
a plane cutting at right angles to an axis. of the cell.
, PROPERTIES OF MEMBRANES
• Cholesterol Fluidity of Membranes
- Constitute 20% of the membrane lipids - Permits movement of membrane pieces
- Gives fluidity to the cell membrane - Allow vesicle formation and fusion
• Glycolipids - Important for;
- Constitute 5% of the membrane lipids 1.Transport of materials by:
- 2 fatty acids + short carbohydrate • Exocytosis – release of materials
chains outside (secretion)
• Endocytosis – materials taken inside
Membrane Proteins o Phagocytosis – solid
Two kinds of Membrane Protein o Pinocytosis – liquid
A. Integral Proteins 2.Compartmentalization
- Pass all the way through the cell - each compartment is specialized for a
membrane particular process producing a particular
B. Peripheral Proteins substance.
- Adhere to the surface of the cell
membrane Permeability of the Membrane
- Glycoprotein – protein + short - Selectively permeable
carbohydrate chains • Hydrophobic substances, smaller
molecules like water may diffuse
FUNCTIONS OF MEMBRANE PROTEIN easily through the phospholipid
• Receptors – bind to chemical bilayer.
messengers such as hormones, bind to • Large hydrophilic substances like
receptor results to a physiological amino acid, glucose, and ions
change in the cell, and important cell need to pass through membrane
for communication. proteins by facilitated diffusion or
• Enzymes – act as catalysts for chemical active transport.
reaction to take place.
• Anchor proteins – physically link PROTOPLASM
intracellular structures. - All substances inside the cell membrane
• Transport Proteins except the vacuole; incudes the
3 Kinds of Transport Proteins nucleus and the cytoplasm.
Channel Protein – allow the passage of
water and solutes to enter or exit the CYTOPLASM
cell. - Part between the cell membrane,
Carrier Protein – transport substances nucleus and or the vacuole.
into and out of the cell; can change its
orientation COMPONENTS OF CYTOPLASM
Protein Pumps – transport substances • Cytosol – fluid portion that contains
against its concentration gradient. water, dissolved solutes and
suspended particles.
• Organelles – subcellular structures
TWO TYPES OF ORGANELLES
Membranous Organelles
- Surrounded by one or two bilayer lipid
membrane
- Includes the endomembrane system
Non-Membranous Organelles
- Lack membranes and directly in
contact with the cytosol
