Critical Thinking: Reason and Evidence D265 Study Guide 2024

Which sentence is a non-proposition? - If the burglar did not go out the front door, they must have gone out a window. - The earth is the third planet from the sun. - Where are the keys to my car? - Mount Everest is the tallest mountain in the world. - ANSWERS Where are the keys to my car? Did the company really close that deal? It has had a great year. Where is the president right now? Let's go ask whether the deal was closed. In the above paragraph, which sentence expresses a proposition? - Where is the president right now? - Did the company really close that deal? - Let's go ask whether the deal was closed. - It has had a great year. - ANSWERS It has had a great year. Propositions - ANSWERS Statements that can be true or false. Non-propositions - ANSWERS Sentences that are not statements about matters of fact (or fiction). They do not make a claim that can be true or false. Which sentence expresses a complex proposition? - Birthday parties can be really fun. - The cat ate the food, but did not like it. - Too many employees are used to high-stress work environments in the United States. - Why did the monkey escape, and who is responsible? - ANSWERS The cat ate the food, but did not like it. If the computer is not fixed, then the company either needs to buy a new one or will not be able to keep up productivity. Which of the following breaks down the complex proposition above into the simple propositions? - If the computer is not fixed, then the company needs to buy a new one. The company will not be able to keep up productivity. - The computer is not fixed. The company needs to buy a new computer. The company will not be able to keep up productivity. - The computer is not fixed. The company either needs to buy a new one or will not be able to keep up productivity. - The company does not have enough computers. - ANSWERS The computer is not fixed. The company needs to buy a new computer. The company will not be able to keep up productivity. Simple propositions - ANSWERS Simple propositions have no internal logical structure, meaning whether they are true or false does not depend on whether part of them is true or false. They are simply true or false on their own. Complex propositions - ANSWERS Complex propositions have internal logical structure, meaning they are composed of simple propositions. Whether they are true or false depends on whether their parts are true or false. If the new employee wants to succeed, then they need to show up on time. How many times have we heard the manager complain about tardiness? Nobody likes a 7 a.m. start time, but it was in the job description. We should remind the new employee how important this is. Which is a simple proposition that is expressed in the above paragraph? - The new employee wants to succeed. - How many times have we heard the manager complain about tardiness? - The employees look out for each other. - If the new employee wants to succeed, then they need to show up on time. - ANSWERS The new employee wants to succeed. The U.S. healthcare system is difficult to navigate, and this negatively affects many of us. Many people are unsure exactly how their health insurance coverage works and are not sure where they can go to get care. What can be done to improve this? If changes are not made soon, the problem will only get worse. Which is a simple proposition that is expressed in the above paragraph? - Many people are not sure where they can go to get care. - The U.S. healthcare system is difficult to navigate, and this negatively affects many of us. - What can be done to improve this? - Many people are unsure exactly how their health insurance coverage works and are not sure where they can go to get care. - ANSWERS Many people are not sure where they can go to get care. Bad inferential structure - ANSWERS Every argument with the same structure as this argument is bad (invalid or weak). The premises do not, in fact, demonstrate or maybe even support the conclusion. In other words, we can accept the premises as true without being compelled to accept the conclusion. There is something wrong with this argument's general structure. False premise - ANSWERS This particular argument has a premise/assumption that is false. There is something wrong with this argument's particular content. Conclusion Indicators - ANSWERS Therefore, so, it follows that, hence, thus, entails that, we may conclude that, implies that, wherefore, as a result Premise Indicators - ANSWERS Because, for, given that, in that, as, since, as indicated by "Since we cannot go out until the restaurant opens, and given that we are trying to save money, we should just hang out here until closer to dinner." Which statements are the premises of the following argument? Choose 2 answers. - We cannot go out until the restaurant opens. - We are trying to save money. - We should just hang out here until closer to dinner. - We can have a good time without spending money. - ANSWERS - We cannot go out until the restaurant opens. - We are trying to save money. Most students in the class scored less than 70% on the exam. This means that the exam was too difficult to accurately assess student learning. Therefore, as exams are supposed to accurately assess student learning, the exam must be revised and readministered. Which statement is the conclusion of the above argument? - The exam must be revised and readministered. - Some students in the class scored higher than 70% on the exam. - Exams are supposed to accurately assess student learning. - Most students in the class scored less than 70% on the exam. - ANSWERS The exam must be revised and readministered. Which sentences are arguments? Choose 2 answers. - We know the student cheated on the exam because the instructor caught the student stealing glances at their neighbor's test. - The student only cheated on the exam because their financial aid depended on it. - No one has ever been to the moon, so we do not know that it is not made of cheese. - If you suspect you have been infected with rabies, then you should contact a medical professional immediately. - ANSWERS - We know the student cheated on the exam because the instructor caught the student stealing glances at their neighbor's test. - No one has ever been to the moon, so we do not know that it is not made of cheese. Which pairs of sentences are arguments? Choose 2 answers. - Every time I walk by here, Chris is doing nothing. Chris must not do anything with the available time. - We need to act now to reverse greenhouse gas emissions. If we do not, the earth will soon become inhospitable to human life. - John Lennon was shot and killed. So were Bobby Kennedy and his brother John. - One student cheated on the test. But it was only because the student felt ill prepared. - ANSWERS - Every time I walk by here, Chris is doing nothing. Chris must not do anything with the available time. - We need to act now to reverse greenhouse gas emissions. If we do not, the earth will soon become inhospitable to human life. I just heard the news about Riley's car. It was vandalized last Saturday. There is no doubt Jordan did it. I went to the bowling alley that night. I bowled a 160! Anyway, I saw Jordan there and, although it was barely noticeable, I definitely saw paint on Jordan's shirt. It is unlikely there would be paint on Jordan's shirt unless Jordan had spray-painted Riley's car. It is a shame, really, since it was such a nice shirt. It was the green one. Oh, and you know Jordan has motive. After all, Jordan has a well-known grudge against Riley. You remember when Riley borrowed Jordan's lawnmower and did not return it. And there was opportunity, because Jordan does not work on the weekend and usually stays home watching television. But the lightning storm earlier last week short-circuited Jordan's TV set. Besides, they canceled Jordan's favorite Saturday evening show. Which description best characterizes the above? - A story - - ANSWERS An argument Kinds of Inferences - ANSWERS Deduction Induction Inference to the best explanation or abduction Deduction - ANSWERS arguments where the premises guarantee or necessitate the conclusion — mathematical arguments, logical arguments, arguments from definition Induction - ANSWERS arguments where the premises make the conclusion probable — analogies, authority, causal inferences, scientific reasoning, extrapolations, etc. Inference to the best explanation or abduction - ANSWERS arguments where the best available explanation is chosen as the correct explanation Truth - ANSWERS A true proposition accurately represents reality. Validity - ANSWERS In a good deductive argument structure, true premises make the conclusion necessarily true. (If not, it is an invalid structure.) Soundness - ANSWERS The deductive argument is valid and all premises are true premises. (If not, it is an unsound argument.) Sound Argument - ANSWERS All True Premises + Valid Structure Strength - ANSWERS In a strong inductive argument, true premises make the conclusion probably true. Cogency - ANSWERS Strong inductive arguments with all true premises are cogent. Consider the following argument: Smith inspected 990 jellybeans in the jar. Each of the beans Smith inspected is red. Therefore, all 1000 of the beans in the jar are red. Which kind of argument is this? - A strong argument - Deductive argument - A weak argument - A valid argument - ANSWERS A strong argument Some arguments are such that the premises of the argument entail its conclusion, which means that if the premises are true, then the conclusion must be true. What are such arguments called? - Inductive arguments - Abductive arguments - Fallacious arguments - Valid arguments - ANSWERS Valid arguments Consider the following argument: If Jones is a baseball player, then Jones is an athlete. Jones is a baseball player. Thus, Jones is an athlete. Which kind of argument is this? - A conditional proposition - A valid argument - A strong argument - An invalid argument - ANSWERS A valid argument In deductive reasoning, what is the difference between validity and soundness? - Validity concerns the truth of an argument's premises, but soundness requires a high degree of probability. - Validity only concerns the structure of an argument, but soundness requires both validity and true premises. - Validity concerns an argument's probability, but soundness requires clearly defined terms. - Validity concerns the inductive strength of an argument, but soundness requires both strength and plausible premises. - ANSWERS Validity only concerns the structure of an argument, but soundness requires both validity and true premises. Which sentences reflect strong critical thinking? Choose 2 answers. - I disagree with my opponent's position on this issue, but I respect my opponents and I am curious to hear their thoughts on the matter. - I know that issues can be complicated, and that it is often difficult to determine the best approach to a problem. - Unlike some others, I do not jump to conclusions, nor am I biased. - While I am open to discussion on the topic, I am committed to my position because I know it is right. - ANSWERS - I disagree with my opponent's position on this issue, but I respect my opponents and I am curious to hear their thoughts on the matter. - I know that issues can be complicated, and that it is often difficult to determine the best approach to a problem. Which sentences are propositions? Choose 2 answers. - Hey, let's go to lunch at noon today. - Mangino's has the best pizza. - They will likely put the other restaurants out of business. - Do you like Mangino's pizza? - ANSWERS - Mangino's has the best pizza. - They will likely put the other restaurants out of business. Which statement is a simple proposition? - Because I was dressed for work, I took an umbrella and ran to my car. - I had a work deadline approaching, so I ate lunch at my desk and finished my work. - I stopped at the grocery store and bought some milk. - By noon, the sun was shining. - ANSWERS By noon, the sun was shining. Which indicator is a premise indicator? - Hence - Because - Thus - Therefore - ANSWERS Because Because flying cars will relieve traffic congestion, and since the research and development of such vehicles will be expensive, it follows that the government should encourage industry to develop flying cars and banks should help fund industry research. Which phrases contain conclusions of this argument? Choose 2 answers. - Flying cars will relieve traffic congestion - The research and development of such vehicles will be expensive - The government should encourage industry to develop flying cars - Banks should help fund industry research - ANSWERS - The government should encourage industry to develop flying cars - Banks should help fund industry research Dogs are bred for many different purposes. Poodles, for example, make good house pets, while German shepherds and other large breeds can be used for home protection. Therefore, because it is important to select the right breed for your needs, you should carefully research dog breeds to make the right choice. Which statement is the conclusion of the argument? - German shepherds and other large breeds can be used for home protection. - Dogs are bred for many different purposes. - You should carefully research dog breeds to make the right choice. - It is important to select the right breed for your needs. - ANSWERS You should carefully research dog breeds to make the right choice. Everyone should vote ___________________. Which phrase would form an argument when added to this sentence? - because it is their duty - for the most honest candidate - in their assigned district - before the deadline - ANSWERS because it is their duty People have fought for freedom since the beginning of time. Which descriptor best characterizes this sentence? - Proposition - Inference - Weak argument - Strong argument - ANSWERS Proposition Jordan says, "I am the best student at our high school; I am the tallest and most athletic, and I have the best car." Taylor, Jordan's best friend, totally agrees. Which two descriptors best characterize Jordan's comments? Choose two answers. - Weak argument - Proposition - Inference - Strong argument - ANSWERS - Weak argument - Inference All dogs are cute. Ginger is a dog. Therefore, Ginger is cute. Which type of reasoning is illustrated in this example? - Deductive - Invalid - Inductive - Abductive - ANSWERS Deductive Usually when the audience comes out of a theater laughing, that means the film was funny. The audience leaving the theater after this film is laughing. So the film probably is funny. Which type of reasoning is illustrated in this example? - Valid - Sound - Inductive - Deductive - ANSWERS Inductive All dogs can fly. Ginger is a dog. Therefore, Ginger can fly. Which types of reasoning are illustrated in this example? Choose 2 answers. - Deductive - Valid - True - Sound - ANSWERS - Deductive - Valid An individual drops hundreds of objects, and each time they fall to the ground. The individual therefore concludes that if someone drops a pencil, it will fall. Which terms describe the argument? Choose 2 answers. - Deductive - Valid - Strong - Cogent - ANSWERS - Strong - Cogent If I am bald, then I am old. I am old. Therefore, I am bald. Which type of logic error is this an example of? - Begging the question - The fallacy fallacy - Denying the antecedent - Affirming the consequent - ANSWERS Affirming the consequent If I am a soldier, then I am brave. I am not a soldier. Therefore, I am not brave. Which type of logic error is this an example of? - Affirming the consequent - Denying the antecedent - Begging the question - The fallacy fallacy - ANSWERS Denying the antecedent One should never cheat on a test, since cheating is wrong. Which type of logic error is this an example of? - Affirming the consequent - Denying the antecedent - Begging the question - The fallacy fallacy - ANSWERS Begging the question My opponent argues that the earth is round because Dr. Evil shaped it that way using his satellite mounted laser. Since Dr. Evil is a fictitious character, you must reject the argument that the earth is round. This is an example of which type of logic error? - Denying the antecedent - Affirming the consequent - Begging the question - The fallacy fallacy - ANSWERS The fallacy fallacy Which of the following is an accurate characterization of "fallacy" as that term is used in logic? - A fallacy is a formal violation of a state law. - A fallacy is a false claim. - A fallacy is a deliberate attempt to deceive. - A fallacy is a common mistake in reasoning. - ANSWERS A fallacy is a common mistake in reasoning. Formal Fallacy - ANSWERS The word "formal" refers to the structure of things. Informal Fallacy - ANSWERS Informal fallacies have a problem with their content. A formal fallacy concerns _______, but an informal fallacy concerns _______. - ANSWERS the structure of an argument By definition, a formal fallacy concerns the structure of an argument and an informal fallacy concerns the information contained in the argument's structure. A formal fallacy is a type of _______. - ANSWERS Bad argument structure Formality is associated with structure. Which questions are most appropriate for evaluating the credibility of an information source? Choose 2 answers. - Who funded it? - Does it try to get you to distrust other sources? - Does it support your beliefs and values? - Is it free of bias? - ANSWERS - Who funded it? - Does it try to get you to distrust other sources? Which study is most likely to be corrupted by bias? - A study by the marketing department of an oil company determining the best use of the company's advertising dollars - A study by a group representing organic farmers examining the health benefits of eating organic foods - A study by an independent research group detailing the effects of global warming - A study by a nonpartisan polling firm showing strong support for a new tax levy - ANSWERS - A study by a group representing organic farmers examining the health benefits of eating organic foods Which questions can best help readers avoid being misled by fake news? Choose 2 answers. - Has the story been vetted by independent fact-checkers? - Does the story support your political views? - Has the subject of a negative story dismissed it as fake news? - Are multiple news outlets independently reporting the same story? - ANSWERS - Has the story been vetted by independent fact-checkers? - Are multiple news outlets independently reporting the same story? Which of the following are reasons for applying the principle of charity? Choose 2 answers. - It makes debates easier to win. - It is morally right to give others the benefit of the doubt. - It allows for a clearer understanding of the issue. - It makes one look good by making one's opponent look weak. - ANSWERS - It is morally right to give others the benefit of the doubt. - It allows for a clearer understanding of the issue. Which passage best demonstrates the principle of charity? - Shae said, "It seems that the earth is flat." Shae must mean that the earth looks flat to observers on the ground even though our planet really is round. - Morgan said, "The new tax levy to support local schools is too expensive." Morgan must think education is unimportant. - Reese said, "The oil industry has contributed to climate change." Reese must believe the oil industry is responsible for every natural disaster that occurs. - Campbell said, "People convicted of theft should not automatically receive harsh prison sentences." Campbell must mean that people who steal should never be punished. - ANSWERS Shae said, "It seems that the earth is flat." Shae must mean that the earth looks flat to observers on the ground even though our planet really is round. Smith is committed to the belief that technological advancement is always beneficial and thus never detrimental to human life. Smith reads a carefully written and sufficiently argued essay in which the author contends that the human adoption of any new technology involves both advantages and disadvantages to its adopters. Since Smith is a loyal technophile, Smith accepts the author's claims about the advantages of technology but rejects the author's claims about the disadvantages of technology. Which cognitive bias is Smith demonstrating? - Dunning-Kruger effect - Self-serving bias - Optimism bias - Confirmation bias - ANSWERS Confirmation bias Cognitive bias - ANSWERS The way we naturally categorize and make sense of the world around us. Alief - ANSWERS An automatic belief-like attitude that can explain how our instinctual responses can conflict with our reasoned-out beliefs. Heuristic - ANSWERS a rule of thumb, a ready strategy, or a shortcut Which of the following is an example of the anchoring bias? - Ortega is inclined to accept relevant evidence that supports his views about religion, but to deny relevant evidence that counts against his views. - Smith accepts a belief only because all of his friends accept it. - Miller possesses a good deal of knowledge about her profession, which is banking. She therefore concludes that she also knows a good deal about political science. - Jones collects five pieces of evidence to support a belief, but arbitrarily emphasizes the first piece of evidence. - ANSWERS Jones collects five pieces of evidence to support a belief, but arbitrarily emphasizes the first piece of evidence. Algorithm bubble - ANSWERS The curated and personalized version of online reality that a website shows you when you log on. Availability heuristic - ANSWERS A process where in the mind generalizes based on what is available to it rather than on what is objectively true. Which of the following is a form of cognitive bias? The false dilemma fallacy The Peter Principle Begging the question Alief - ANSWERS Alief Which of the following is most likely to be most impacted by cognitive bias? - A social media post from a nonexpert concerning a controversial topic - A peer-reviewed academic journal - A newspaper article about a recent baseball game - A history textbook written by a reputable historian - ANSWERS A social media post from a nonexpert concerning a controversial topic Which type of generalization is rationally acceptable? - A generalization treated as if there were no exceptions, when in fact there is at least one exception - A generalization based on an adequate number of relevant cases - A generalization based on an unfair stereotype - A generalization based on an insufficient sample - ANSWERS A generalization based on an adequate number of relevant cases Which of the following is the most relevant question to ask when seeking to identify an unwarranted statistical generalization? - Does the generalization follow at least one rule of deductive logic? - Does the generalization confirm what you already believe? - Is the generalization consistent with popular beliefs in your society? - Is the generalization based on a sufficient number of germane samples? - ANSWERS Is the generalization based on a sufficient number of germane samples? The Bright Tooth toothpaste company runs the following advertisement: "Use Bright Tooth toothpaste. Nine out of ten dentists recommend it!" You decide to research this claim. You discover that the Bright Tooth toothpaste company surveyed only ten carefully selected dentists, nine of whom expressed support for Bright Tooth toothpaste. You also learn that, as of 2019, there were 200,419 dentists in the United States alone. Which error is committed in the advertisement? - Selection bias - Thinking Slow - Selective attention - Unfair stereotype - ANSWERS Selection bias Which is the best example of System 1 thinking? - Researching different candidates' tax plans to determine how to vote - Automatically forming a judgment about someone based on how they are dressed - Splitting the bill with friends at a restaurant - Consulting multiple sources to form an investment plan - ANSWERS Automatically forming a judgment about someone based on how they are dressed Which is the best example of System 2 thinking? - Choosing the best college for one's child - Realizing, due to a crashing sound, that something happened upstairs - Thinking that food is rotten because it smells bad - Solving the equation 1+3=? - ANSWERS Choosing the best college for one's child System 1 Thinking - ANSWERS This is quick, automatic thinking System 2 Thinking - ANSWERS This is deliberate thinking When asked how likely it is for an urban cyclist to get in an accident, a survey respondent remembered that their friend got into a cycling accident last week. This makes them conclude that cycling accidents are fairly likely. Which statement is correct about the source of bias in the passage and how to avoid its impact? - This is availability bias. It is best avoided by carefully considering whether the examples that come to mind are truly representative of the world at large. - This is confirmation bias. It is best avoided by seeking out the best arguments for alternative viewpoints. - This is availability bias. It is best avoided by going with one's instincts and avoiding too much deliberation. - This is confirmation bias. It is best avoided by staying fixed in one's beliefs and not allowing outside influences to change one's views. - ANSWERS This is availability bias. It is best avoided by carefully considering whether the examples that come to mind are truly representative of the world at large. Which statement about how to respond to bias is correct? - Different forms of bias are best responded to in different ways, depending on how they impact a person. - Since humans are bound to be influenced by bias in everything they do, the