Copyright Pharmaceutical Press www.pharmpress.com
6
Extravascular routes of drug
administration
6.1 Introduction 106 6.7 Some important comments on the 116
absorption rate constant
6.2 Drug remaining to be absorbed, or drug 106
remaining at the site of administration 6.8 The apparent volume of distribution (V) 116
6.3 Determination of elimination half life 109 6.9 Time of maximum drug concentration, 117
(t1/2 ) and elimination rate constant (K or peak time (tmax )
Kel )
6.10 Maximum (peak) plasma concentration 118
6.4 Absorption rate constant (Ka ) 110 (Cp )max
6.5 Wagner–Nelson method 111 6.11 Some general comments 120
(one-compartment model) and
Loo–Riegelman method 6.12 Example for extravascular route of drug 121
(two-compartment model) administration
6.6 Lag time (t0 ) 115 6.13 Flip-flop kinetics 126
Objectives
Upon completion of this chapter, you will have the ability to:
• calculate plasma drug concentration at any given time after the administration of an extravascular
dose of a drug, based on known or estimated pharmacokinetic parameters
• interpret the plasma drug concentration versus time curve of a drug administered extravascularly
as the sum of an absorption curve and an elimination curve
• employ extrapolation techniques to characterize the absorption phase
• calculate the absorption rate constant and explain factors that influence this constant
• explain possible reasons for the presence of lag time in a drug’s absorption
• calculate peak plasma drug concentration, (Cp )max , and the time, tmax , at which this occurs
• explain the factors that influence peak plasma concentration and peak time
• decide when flip-flop kinetics may be a factor in the plasma drug concentration versus time curve
of a drug administered extravascularly.
Sample chapter for Basic Pharmacokinetics 2nd edition
, Copyright Pharmaceutical Press www.pharmpress.com
106 Basic Pharmacokinetics
6.1 Introduction Useful pharmacokinetic parameters
Figure 6.3 outlines the absorption of a drug that fits a
Drugs, through dosage forms, are most frequently
one-compartment model with first-order elimination.
administered extravascularly and the majority of them
The following information is useful:
are intended to act systemically; for this reason,
absorption is a prerequisite for pharmacological 1 equation for determining the plasma concentra-
effects. Delays or drug loss during absorption may tion at any time t
contribute to variability in drug response and, occa- 2 determination of the elimination half life (t1/2 )
sionally, may result in a failure of drug therapy. and rate constant (K or Kel )
The gastrointestinal membrane separates the ab- 3 determination of the absorption half life (t1/2 )abs
sorption site from the blood. Therefore, passage of and absorption rate constant (Ka )
drug across the membrane is a prerequisite for ab- 4 lag time (t0 ), if any
sorption. For this reason, drug must be in a solution 5 determination of the apparent volume of distri-
form and dissolution becomes very critical for the bution (V or Vd ) and fraction of drug absorbed
absorption of a drug. The passage of drug molecules (F)
from the gastrointestinal tract to the general circula- 6 determination of the peak time (tmax )
tion and factors affecting this are shown in Figs 6.1 7 determination of the peak plasma or serum con-
and 6.2. Any factor influencing dissolution of the centration (Cp )max .
drug is likely to affect the absorption of a drug. These
factors will be discussed, in detail, later in the text.
Drug, once in solution, must pass through mem- 6.2 Drug remaining to be
branes before reaching the general circulation. Hence, absorbed, or drug remaining at
the physicochemical properties of the drug molecule the site of administration
(pKa of the drug, partition coefficient of the drug, drug
solubility, etc.), pH at the site of drug administration, Equation (6.1) describes the changes in mass of ab-
nature of the membrane, and physiological factors sorbable drug over time at the site of administration.
will also influence the absorption of a drug. −dXa
The present discussion will deal with general prin- = Ka (Xa )t (6.1)
dt
ciples that determine the rate and extent of drug
absorption and the methods used to assess these where −dX/dt is the decrease in the amount of ab-
and other pharmacokinetic parameters, from plasma sorbable drug present at the site of administration per
concentration versus time data following oral admin- unit time (e.g., mg h−1 ); Ka is the first-order absorp-
istration of drugs. Emphasis is placed upon absorp- tion rate constant (h−1 ; min−1 ); and (Xa )t is the mass
tion of drugs following oral administration because it or amount of absorbable drug at the site of adminis-
tration (e.g., the gastrointestinal tract) at time t.
illustrates all sources of variability encountered
Upon integration of Eq. (6.1), we obtain the fol-
during drug absorption.
lowing:
Note that a similar approach may be applied to
determine pharmacokinetic parameters of drugs when (Xa )t = (Xa )t=0 e−Ka t = FX0 e−Ka t (6.2)
any other extravascular route is used.
The following assumptions are made. where (Xa )t=0 is the mass or amount of absorbable
drug at the site of administration at time t = 0 (for
• Drug exhibits the characteristics of one- extravascular administration of drug, (Xa )t=0 equals
compartment model. FX 0 ); F is the fraction or percentage of the ad-
• Absorption and elimination of a drug follow ministered dose that is available to reach the gen-
the first-order process and passive diffusion is eral circulation; and X0 is the administered dose of
operative all the time. drug.
If F = 1.0, that is, if the drug is completely
• Drug is eliminated in unchanged form (i.e., no
(100%) absorbed, then
metabolism occurs).
• Drug is monitored in the blood. (Xa )t = X0 e−Ka t . (6.3)
Sample chapter for Basic Pharmacokinetics 2nd edition
, Copyright Pharmaceutical Press www.pharmpress.com
Extravascular routes of drug administration 107
Figure 6.1 Barriers to gastrointestinal absorption.
Both Eqs (6.2) and (6.3) and Fig. 6.4 clearly indi- absorption and the elimination rates:
cate that the mass, or amount, of drug that remains dX
at the absorption site or site of administration (or = Ka Xa − KX (6.4)
dt
remains to be absorbed) declines monoexponentially
with time. where dX/dt is the rate (mg h−1 ) of change of amount
However, since we cannot measure the amount of drug in the blood; X is the mass or amount of
of drug remaining to be absorbed (Xa ) directly, be- drug in the blood or body at time t; Xa is the mass
cause of practical difficulty, Eqs (6.2) and (6.3), for or amount of absorbable drug at the absorption site
the time being, become virtually useless for the pur- at time t; Ka and K are the first-order absorption and
pose of determining the absorption rate constant; elimination rate constants, respectively (e.g., h−1 );
and, therefore, we go to other alternatives such as Ka Xa is the first-order rate of absorption (mg h−1 ,
monitoring drug in the blood and/or urine to deter- µg h−1 , etc.); and KX is the first-order rate of elim-
mine the absorption rate constant and the absorption ination (e.g., mg h−1 ).
characteristics. Equation (6.4) clearly indicates that rate of
change in drug in the blood reflects the difference
between the absorption and the elimination rates (i.e.,
Monitoring drug in the blood Ka Xa and KX, respectively). Following the adminis-
(plasma/serum) or site of measurement tration of a dose of drug, the difference between the
absorption and elimination rates (i.e., Ka Xa − KX)
The differential equation that follows relates changes becomes smaller as time increases; at peak time, the
in drug concentration in the blood with time to the difference becomes zero.
Sample chapter for Basic Pharmacokinetics 2nd edition
6
Extravascular routes of drug
administration
6.1 Introduction 106 6.7 Some important comments on the 116
absorption rate constant
6.2 Drug remaining to be absorbed, or drug 106
remaining at the site of administration 6.8 The apparent volume of distribution (V) 116
6.3 Determination of elimination half life 109 6.9 Time of maximum drug concentration, 117
(t1/2 ) and elimination rate constant (K or peak time (tmax )
Kel )
6.10 Maximum (peak) plasma concentration 118
6.4 Absorption rate constant (Ka ) 110 (Cp )max
6.5 Wagner–Nelson method 111 6.11 Some general comments 120
(one-compartment model) and
Loo–Riegelman method 6.12 Example for extravascular route of drug 121
(two-compartment model) administration
6.6 Lag time (t0 ) 115 6.13 Flip-flop kinetics 126
Objectives
Upon completion of this chapter, you will have the ability to:
• calculate plasma drug concentration at any given time after the administration of an extravascular
dose of a drug, based on known or estimated pharmacokinetic parameters
• interpret the plasma drug concentration versus time curve of a drug administered extravascularly
as the sum of an absorption curve and an elimination curve
• employ extrapolation techniques to characterize the absorption phase
• calculate the absorption rate constant and explain factors that influence this constant
• explain possible reasons for the presence of lag time in a drug’s absorption
• calculate peak plasma drug concentration, (Cp )max , and the time, tmax , at which this occurs
• explain the factors that influence peak plasma concentration and peak time
• decide when flip-flop kinetics may be a factor in the plasma drug concentration versus time curve
of a drug administered extravascularly.
Sample chapter for Basic Pharmacokinetics 2nd edition
, Copyright Pharmaceutical Press www.pharmpress.com
106 Basic Pharmacokinetics
6.1 Introduction Useful pharmacokinetic parameters
Figure 6.3 outlines the absorption of a drug that fits a
Drugs, through dosage forms, are most frequently
one-compartment model with first-order elimination.
administered extravascularly and the majority of them
The following information is useful:
are intended to act systemically; for this reason,
absorption is a prerequisite for pharmacological 1 equation for determining the plasma concentra-
effects. Delays or drug loss during absorption may tion at any time t
contribute to variability in drug response and, occa- 2 determination of the elimination half life (t1/2 )
sionally, may result in a failure of drug therapy. and rate constant (K or Kel )
The gastrointestinal membrane separates the ab- 3 determination of the absorption half life (t1/2 )abs
sorption site from the blood. Therefore, passage of and absorption rate constant (Ka )
drug across the membrane is a prerequisite for ab- 4 lag time (t0 ), if any
sorption. For this reason, drug must be in a solution 5 determination of the apparent volume of distri-
form and dissolution becomes very critical for the bution (V or Vd ) and fraction of drug absorbed
absorption of a drug. The passage of drug molecules (F)
from the gastrointestinal tract to the general circula- 6 determination of the peak time (tmax )
tion and factors affecting this are shown in Figs 6.1 7 determination of the peak plasma or serum con-
and 6.2. Any factor influencing dissolution of the centration (Cp )max .
drug is likely to affect the absorption of a drug. These
factors will be discussed, in detail, later in the text.
Drug, once in solution, must pass through mem- 6.2 Drug remaining to be
branes before reaching the general circulation. Hence, absorbed, or drug remaining at
the physicochemical properties of the drug molecule the site of administration
(pKa of the drug, partition coefficient of the drug, drug
solubility, etc.), pH at the site of drug administration, Equation (6.1) describes the changes in mass of ab-
nature of the membrane, and physiological factors sorbable drug over time at the site of administration.
will also influence the absorption of a drug. −dXa
The present discussion will deal with general prin- = Ka (Xa )t (6.1)
dt
ciples that determine the rate and extent of drug
absorption and the methods used to assess these where −dX/dt is the decrease in the amount of ab-
and other pharmacokinetic parameters, from plasma sorbable drug present at the site of administration per
concentration versus time data following oral admin- unit time (e.g., mg h−1 ); Ka is the first-order absorp-
istration of drugs. Emphasis is placed upon absorp- tion rate constant (h−1 ; min−1 ); and (Xa )t is the mass
tion of drugs following oral administration because it or amount of absorbable drug at the site of adminis-
tration (e.g., the gastrointestinal tract) at time t.
illustrates all sources of variability encountered
Upon integration of Eq. (6.1), we obtain the fol-
during drug absorption.
lowing:
Note that a similar approach may be applied to
determine pharmacokinetic parameters of drugs when (Xa )t = (Xa )t=0 e−Ka t = FX0 e−Ka t (6.2)
any other extravascular route is used.
The following assumptions are made. where (Xa )t=0 is the mass or amount of absorbable
drug at the site of administration at time t = 0 (for
• Drug exhibits the characteristics of one- extravascular administration of drug, (Xa )t=0 equals
compartment model. FX 0 ); F is the fraction or percentage of the ad-
• Absorption and elimination of a drug follow ministered dose that is available to reach the gen-
the first-order process and passive diffusion is eral circulation; and X0 is the administered dose of
operative all the time. drug.
If F = 1.0, that is, if the drug is completely
• Drug is eliminated in unchanged form (i.e., no
(100%) absorbed, then
metabolism occurs).
• Drug is monitored in the blood. (Xa )t = X0 e−Ka t . (6.3)
Sample chapter for Basic Pharmacokinetics 2nd edition
, Copyright Pharmaceutical Press www.pharmpress.com
Extravascular routes of drug administration 107
Figure 6.1 Barriers to gastrointestinal absorption.
Both Eqs (6.2) and (6.3) and Fig. 6.4 clearly indi- absorption and the elimination rates:
cate that the mass, or amount, of drug that remains dX
at the absorption site or site of administration (or = Ka Xa − KX (6.4)
dt
remains to be absorbed) declines monoexponentially
with time. where dX/dt is the rate (mg h−1 ) of change of amount
However, since we cannot measure the amount of drug in the blood; X is the mass or amount of
of drug remaining to be absorbed (Xa ) directly, be- drug in the blood or body at time t; Xa is the mass
cause of practical difficulty, Eqs (6.2) and (6.3), for or amount of absorbable drug at the absorption site
the time being, become virtually useless for the pur- at time t; Ka and K are the first-order absorption and
pose of determining the absorption rate constant; elimination rate constants, respectively (e.g., h−1 );
and, therefore, we go to other alternatives such as Ka Xa is the first-order rate of absorption (mg h−1 ,
monitoring drug in the blood and/or urine to deter- µg h−1 , etc.); and KX is the first-order rate of elim-
mine the absorption rate constant and the absorption ination (e.g., mg h−1 ).
characteristics. Equation (6.4) clearly indicates that rate of
change in drug in the blood reflects the difference
between the absorption and the elimination rates (i.e.,
Monitoring drug in the blood Ka Xa and KX, respectively). Following the adminis-
(plasma/serum) or site of measurement tration of a dose of drug, the difference between the
absorption and elimination rates (i.e., Ka Xa − KX)
The differential equation that follows relates changes becomes smaller as time increases; at peak time, the
in drug concentration in the blood with time to the difference becomes zero.
Sample chapter for Basic Pharmacokinetics 2nd edition
