Summary van Wart: Leadership in Public Organizations
H1: Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………............2
H2: Understanding Theories of Leadership and Leadership Styles……………………………….....3
H3: Early Management, Trait, Stratified Systems, and Transactional Theories of Leadership……5
H4: Charismatic and Transformational Approaches……………………………………………….......9
H5: Distributed Approaches to Leadership……………………………………………………………..12
H6: Ethics-Based Leadership Theories……………………………………………………………..….18
H7: Leadership Approaches Focusing on Influence, Attribution, and a Changing Environment....21
H8: Competency-Based Leadership Approaches……………………………………………………..27
H9: Traits That Contribute to Leader Effectiveness……………………………………………………29
H10: Skills That Contribute to Leader Effectiveness…………………………………………………..33
H15: Leadership Development and Evaluation………………………………………………………...36
1
,Chapter 1: Introduction
There are different kinds of leaders, depending on the type of work and the type of
followers. The following simplified view is offered:
Types of work
Execution Policy New ideas
Employees Managers Executives with Transformational
policy leaders
responsibilities
Constituents Community Legislators and Lobbyists and
Types of (voters) leaders of advisory board policy
followers volunteer members entrepreneurs
groups
Adherents Small-group Leaders of Philosophical
(aanhangers) leaders social zealots and social
movements trend setters
Leaders can be front-liners, or CEOs, with a small or large organization, and more; it
is important to keep the context differences in mind!
The history of leadership studies started with the great man thesis. Next there
was the traits approach around 1990, and after that the contingency approach. Then,
large-scale and transformational leadership was introduced. After that came servant
leadership with an ethical element, and lastly multifaceted integrated leadership
approaches.
There are several discussion points in leadership theory.
- What should leaders focus on: technical performance, development of people,
or organizational alignment?
o And what exactly is administrative leadership?
- To what degree do leaders make a difference?
- Are leaders born or made?
- What is the best leadership style to use?
The operational definition of leadership used in this book is:
Leadership is a complex process involving the acts of:
1. Assessing one’s environment and one’s leadership constraints
2. Developing the necessary leadership traits and skills
3. Refining and modifying one’s style for different situations
4. Achieving predetermined goals
5. Continually self—evaluating one’s performance and developing one’s potential
PART I: THEORIES AND APPROACHES TO LEADERSHIP
Chapter 2: Understanding theories of leadership and leadership styles
2
,The general model used in the book to explain leadership is:
Leader styles
(behavioural variables)
Contingency factors
Ideal conditions (intervening variables)
= factors that affect the behaviours / style
to be selected as most effective
Strategies for success (moderating variables)
= factors that affect the strength, quality or
success of behaviours / style
Performance goals
= Specific outcomes
desired and criteria
Contingency factors can be: leader characteristics, task characteristics, subordinate
characteristics, organizational characteristics, and other characteristics like gender.
Performance goals are the implied outcomes; these are traditionally efficiency
and effectiveness, but follower development or organizational alignment can also be
outcomes.
There are ten leadership styles identified:
1. Laissez-faire style
- A passive or indifferent leader, not really a style
2. Directive style
- A leader lets subordinates know what they are expected to do, gives
direction and guidance, and people follow rules and procedures.
Monitoring, informing and clarifying roles happen often here.
- There is high leader control and legitimate power
- Top-down, autocratic, task-oriented
- Sub-styles: instructive, structuring
o Danger: authoritarian, bossy, micromanaging. Rigid style, no input
from others
3. Supportive style
- Showing consideration towards followings, concern for their needs,
creating a friendly work environment. People-oriented. Generally low
control. Focus on followers.
- Sub-styles: caring model (positive, leader attuned to followers needs)
o Danger sub-style: county model (negative; all fun no work)
4. Participative style
- Consulting with followers, take their opinions into account, creative work
environment. Modest amount of task-delegation.
- The supportive style emphasizes listening and empathy, participative
emphasizes discussion and inclusion in problem-solving.
- Sub-type: inclusive style, self-conscious team approach
o Danger: inefficiency because of too much participation, style is not
always appropriate
3
, 5. Delegative style
- Allows followers relative freedom for decision-making and freedom from
daily monitoring and short-term reviews. Delegation of responsibility,
allocation of authority.
- Low leader control, at least moderate performance goals. Intrinsic
motivation is assumed.
- When does this work? When followers are educated/experienced,
internalized works standards and norms, and with structured work and
clear roles.
- Two forms of delegating: followers are given additional duties but the
leader keeps monitoring/clarifying; second, followers are given more
decision-making power, which is true delegation and empowerment
o With greater empowerment comes greater accountability
o Shift to more internalized control mechanisms
6. Achievement-oriented style
- Leader sets challenging task goals, seeks improvements, and
emphasizes excellence in followers and shows confidence that followers
will perform well.
- Both task- and people-focused; setting and clarifying goals, and
consulting and managing people. Followers focus on leader.
- Individual achievement, social exchange
o Danger: calculating followers, excess of competition, what’s-in-it-
for-me, damage group relations
7. Inspirational style
- Uses intellectual stimulation to produce new ideas, accept new
approaches, and arouse enthusiasm for group goals.
- Group focused, leader must be accepted and respected by followers
- Both task- and people focused; managing innovation, and changing
people. Organization level; scanning the environment for opportunities.
- It is a distinctive approach in the transformational-charismatic school.
o Danger: overreliance on charisma, overly powerful leaders,
followers who are enthusiastic sheep, cult
8. Strategic style
- Focuses attention on organizational matters in the environmental context
that contribute to organizational alignment. About learning, changing.
- Focused on organizational behaviour: strategic planning, environment
scanning, managing organization change, leadership tenure and
succession.
- Sub-styles: incremental improver, radical reformer.
o Danger: misapplication, wrong change or wrong type of change,
underestimating change process
9. Collaborative style
- Focuses on representation, external networking and partnering, goodwill.
4
H1: Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………............2
H2: Understanding Theories of Leadership and Leadership Styles……………………………….....3
H3: Early Management, Trait, Stratified Systems, and Transactional Theories of Leadership……5
H4: Charismatic and Transformational Approaches……………………………………………….......9
H5: Distributed Approaches to Leadership……………………………………………………………..12
H6: Ethics-Based Leadership Theories……………………………………………………………..….18
H7: Leadership Approaches Focusing on Influence, Attribution, and a Changing Environment....21
H8: Competency-Based Leadership Approaches……………………………………………………..27
H9: Traits That Contribute to Leader Effectiveness……………………………………………………29
H10: Skills That Contribute to Leader Effectiveness…………………………………………………..33
H15: Leadership Development and Evaluation………………………………………………………...36
1
,Chapter 1: Introduction
There are different kinds of leaders, depending on the type of work and the type of
followers. The following simplified view is offered:
Types of work
Execution Policy New ideas
Employees Managers Executives with Transformational
policy leaders
responsibilities
Constituents Community Legislators and Lobbyists and
Types of (voters) leaders of advisory board policy
followers volunteer members entrepreneurs
groups
Adherents Small-group Leaders of Philosophical
(aanhangers) leaders social zealots and social
movements trend setters
Leaders can be front-liners, or CEOs, with a small or large organization, and more; it
is important to keep the context differences in mind!
The history of leadership studies started with the great man thesis. Next there
was the traits approach around 1990, and after that the contingency approach. Then,
large-scale and transformational leadership was introduced. After that came servant
leadership with an ethical element, and lastly multifaceted integrated leadership
approaches.
There are several discussion points in leadership theory.
- What should leaders focus on: technical performance, development of people,
or organizational alignment?
o And what exactly is administrative leadership?
- To what degree do leaders make a difference?
- Are leaders born or made?
- What is the best leadership style to use?
The operational definition of leadership used in this book is:
Leadership is a complex process involving the acts of:
1. Assessing one’s environment and one’s leadership constraints
2. Developing the necessary leadership traits and skills
3. Refining and modifying one’s style for different situations
4. Achieving predetermined goals
5. Continually self—evaluating one’s performance and developing one’s potential
PART I: THEORIES AND APPROACHES TO LEADERSHIP
Chapter 2: Understanding theories of leadership and leadership styles
2
,The general model used in the book to explain leadership is:
Leader styles
(behavioural variables)
Contingency factors
Ideal conditions (intervening variables)
= factors that affect the behaviours / style
to be selected as most effective
Strategies for success (moderating variables)
= factors that affect the strength, quality or
success of behaviours / style
Performance goals
= Specific outcomes
desired and criteria
Contingency factors can be: leader characteristics, task characteristics, subordinate
characteristics, organizational characteristics, and other characteristics like gender.
Performance goals are the implied outcomes; these are traditionally efficiency
and effectiveness, but follower development or organizational alignment can also be
outcomes.
There are ten leadership styles identified:
1. Laissez-faire style
- A passive or indifferent leader, not really a style
2. Directive style
- A leader lets subordinates know what they are expected to do, gives
direction and guidance, and people follow rules and procedures.
Monitoring, informing and clarifying roles happen often here.
- There is high leader control and legitimate power
- Top-down, autocratic, task-oriented
- Sub-styles: instructive, structuring
o Danger: authoritarian, bossy, micromanaging. Rigid style, no input
from others
3. Supportive style
- Showing consideration towards followings, concern for their needs,
creating a friendly work environment. People-oriented. Generally low
control. Focus on followers.
- Sub-styles: caring model (positive, leader attuned to followers needs)
o Danger sub-style: county model (negative; all fun no work)
4. Participative style
- Consulting with followers, take their opinions into account, creative work
environment. Modest amount of task-delegation.
- The supportive style emphasizes listening and empathy, participative
emphasizes discussion and inclusion in problem-solving.
- Sub-type: inclusive style, self-conscious team approach
o Danger: inefficiency because of too much participation, style is not
always appropriate
3
, 5. Delegative style
- Allows followers relative freedom for decision-making and freedom from
daily monitoring and short-term reviews. Delegation of responsibility,
allocation of authority.
- Low leader control, at least moderate performance goals. Intrinsic
motivation is assumed.
- When does this work? When followers are educated/experienced,
internalized works standards and norms, and with structured work and
clear roles.
- Two forms of delegating: followers are given additional duties but the
leader keeps monitoring/clarifying; second, followers are given more
decision-making power, which is true delegation and empowerment
o With greater empowerment comes greater accountability
o Shift to more internalized control mechanisms
6. Achievement-oriented style
- Leader sets challenging task goals, seeks improvements, and
emphasizes excellence in followers and shows confidence that followers
will perform well.
- Both task- and people-focused; setting and clarifying goals, and
consulting and managing people. Followers focus on leader.
- Individual achievement, social exchange
o Danger: calculating followers, excess of competition, what’s-in-it-
for-me, damage group relations
7. Inspirational style
- Uses intellectual stimulation to produce new ideas, accept new
approaches, and arouse enthusiasm for group goals.
- Group focused, leader must be accepted and respected by followers
- Both task- and people focused; managing innovation, and changing
people. Organization level; scanning the environment for opportunities.
- It is a distinctive approach in the transformational-charismatic school.
o Danger: overreliance on charisma, overly powerful leaders,
followers who are enthusiastic sheep, cult
8. Strategic style
- Focuses attention on organizational matters in the environmental context
that contribute to organizational alignment. About learning, changing.
- Focused on organizational behaviour: strategic planning, environment
scanning, managing organization change, leadership tenure and
succession.
- Sub-styles: incremental improver, radical reformer.
o Danger: misapplication, wrong change or wrong type of change,
underestimating change process
9. Collaborative style
- Focuses on representation, external networking and partnering, goodwill.
4
