WGU D265 Definitions Practice questions 2024

Example: "The Earth is flat" is a proposition, and it could be either true or false. Non-proposition - ANSWERSA statement that isn't about truth or falsity, like questions or commands, think of it as "not about truth." Example: "What time is it?" is a non-proposition because it's a question. Argument - ANSWERSIs like a debate; it's a set of statements aiming to support the conclusion. Example: In a debate, "Cats are great hunters (premise), and Fluffy is a cat (premise), so Fluffy must be a great hunter (conclusion)" is an argument. Non-argument - ANSWERSIs just a collection of statements, not trying to persuade, think of it as "statements hanging out." Example: A recipe listing ingredients and instructions isn't trying to persuade; it's a non-argument. Premise - ANSWERSIs like the building blocks of an argument; it's a statement used as evidence or support. Example: In a detective story, "The footprint matches the suspect's shoe (premise)" is evidence in an argument. Conclusion - ANSWERSIs like the verdict; it's the statement in an argument that's being argued for, think of it as "what we're trying to conclude." Example: In a courtroom, "Based on the evidence, the defendant is guilty (conclusion)" is what the argument aims to prove. Deductive Argument - ANSWERSIs like a puzzle with precise steps; it's when the conclusion absolutely must be true if the premises are true. Example: "All men are mortal (premise); Socrates is a man (premise); therefore, Socrates is mortal (conclusion)" is a deductive argument, think of it as a "definite conclusion." Inductive Argument - ANSWERSis like a detective's hunch; it's when the conclusion is likely to be true based on evidence but not guaranteed. Example: "Every swan we've seen is white (premise); therefore, all swans are white (conclusion)" is an inductive argument, think of it as an "educated guess." Valid - ANSWERSIs when the argument's structure is like a well-built bridge, ensuring that if premises are true, the conclusion must be true. Example (Valid): All humans are mammals (premise); I am a human (premise); I am a mammal (conclusion). Invalid - ANSWERSIs when the structure is shaky, and the conclusion doesn't necessarily follow. Example (Invalid): All mammals have feathers (premise); Penguins are mammals (premise); Penguins have feathers (conclusion). Sound - ANSWERSIs when an deductive argument is both valid (structurally solid) and has true premises. Example (Sound): All birds can fly (premise); A penguin is a bird (premise); Therefore, a penguin can fly (conclusion). Unsound - ANSWERSIs when an deductive argument is either invalid, has false premises, or both. Example (Unsound): All fish can sing (premise); A shark is a fish (premise); Therefore, a shark can sing (conclusion). Strong - ANSWERSIs when an inductive argument provides strong evidence for its conclusion. Example (Strong): 95% of observed days in July are sunny (premise); Tomorrow is in July, so it's likely to be sunny (conclusion). Weak - ANSWERSIs when an inductive argument provides weak or insufficient evidence. Example (Weak): 50% of observed days in July are sunny (premise); Tomorrow is in July, so it might be sunny, or it might not be (conclusion). cogent argument - ANSWERSan inductive argument that is strong and has all true premises. Example (Cogent): Studies show 90% of smokers develop health problems (premise); John is a smoker (premise); Therefore, John is likely to have health problems (conclusion). Uncogent - ANSWERSAn inductive argument that is weak, has one or more false premises, fails to meet the total evidence requirement, or any combination of these. Example (Uncogent): Studies show 90% of smokers develop health problems (premise); Jane is a non-smoker (premise); Therefore, Jane is likely to have health problems (conclusion). informal fallacy - ANSWERSIs like a sneaky trick in an argument; it's an error in reasoning that doesn't follow the rules of logic. Example: "I heard a black cat brings bad luck, so when I saw a black cat, I tripped and fell. It must be true!" — This is an informal fallacy called "post hoc" because it assumes causation without evidence. Formal Fallacy - ANSWERSIt's an error in the argument's structure, making it invalid. Example: "All humans are animals (premise); All animals are made of cheese (premise); Therefore, all humans are made of cheese (conclusion)" — This is a formal fallacy because the conclusion doesn't logically follow from the premises. Antecedent - ANSWERSThe "if" part of a conditional statement. Example: In "If it rains, then I'll bring an umbrella," "It rains" is the antecedent. Consequent - ANSWERSThe "then" part of a conditional statement. Example: In "If it rains, then I'll bring an umbrella," "I'll bring an umbrella" is the consequent. Modus Ponens - ANSWERSIt's a valid argument form where if the antecedent is true, the consequent must be true. A valid deductive argument form: If P, then Q. P is true, so Q is true. Example: If "It is raining" (antecedent) and "I'll bring an umbrella" (consequent), then "I'll bring an umbrella" must be true. Modus Tollens - ANSWERSIt's another valid argument form where if the consequent is false, the antecedent must be false. A valid deductive argument form: If P, then Q. Not Q is true, so not P is true. Example: If "I didn't bring an umbrella" (not the consequent) and "It's not raining" (not the antecedent), then "It's not raining" must be true. Affirming the Consequent - ANSWERSIs like making an incorrect "affirmation"; it's a fallacy where one mistakenly concludes that the antecedent is true because the consequent is true. A formal fallacy: If P, then Q. Q is true, so P is true. Example: "I didn't get wet (consequent), so it didn't rain (affirming the consequent)" — This is a fallacy. Denying the Antecedent - ANSWERS"Denying the 'A'"; it's a fallacy where one mistakenly concludes that the consequent is false because the antecedent is false. A formal fallacy: If P, then Q. Not P is true, so not Q is true. Example: "I didn't bring an umbrella (antecedent), so it must be raining (denying the antecedent)" — This is a fallacy. The Fallacy Fallacy - ANSWERS"Falling for Fallacies"; it's a fallacy where one wrongly concludes that an argument is false just because it contains a fallacy. Example: "His argument had a logical fallacy, so everything he said must be wrong (the fallacy fallacy)" — This is a fallacy itself because some parts of an argument could still be valid or true even if a fallacy is present. Credibility of an Information Source - ANSWERSThe credibility of an information source is like assessing if a superhero is trustworthy; it's the measure of how believable and trustworthy the source is. Example: Imagine a superhero who has a long history of saving the day (credible) versus a new, untested hero (less credible). Reliability of an Information Source - ANSWERSThe reliability of an information source is like evaluating whether a car starts consistently; it's the measure of how consistently the source provides accurate and dependable information. Example: Think of a car that starts reliably every morning (reliable) compared to one that occasionally fails to start (less reliable). Cognitive Bias - ANSWERSIs like having colored glasses that affect how you see the world; it's a systematic pattern of thinking that can lead to deviations from rational judgment. Example: Imagine wearing "rose-colored glasses" that make everything appear more positive than it actually is - this illustrates cognitive bias. Confirmation Bias - ANSWERSis like seeking information that confirms what you already believe; it's the tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information in a way that supports your preexisting beliefs. Example: If you're convinced your favorite team is the best, you may only notice news or statistics that make them look great while ignoring negative information. Representativeness Bias - ANSWERSIs like judging a book by its cover; it's the tendency to judge the likelihood of an event based on how similar it appears to a prototype or stereotype. Example: Assuming someone is a computer programmer just because they wear glasses and are introverted is an example of representativeness bias. Anchoring and Adjustment Bias - ANSWERSIs like being stuck in a price negotiation; it's when people rely too heavily on the first piece of information they encounter (the anchor) when making decisions. Example: In a negotiation, starting with a high price (the anchor) can lead to a final price higher than necessary. Availability Bias - ANSWERSis like remembering the most dramatic movie scenes; it's the tendency to overestimate the importance of information that's easily available in memory, often due to recent exposure. Example: After hearing about a plane crash on the news, you may become more fearful of flying, even though flying is generally safe. Selection Bias - ANSWERSIs like a survey only filled out by a certain group; it's an error that occurs when the sample of data used for analysis is not representative of the entire population, often leading to inaccurate conclusions. Example: If a health survey is conducted only in wealthy neighborhoods, it may not accurately represent the health of the entire population. Heuristic - ANSWERSIs like using a shortcut to make a quick decision; it's a mental rule-of-thumb or strategy that simplifies problem-solving. Example: When faced with a complex math problem, you might use the "divide and conquer" heuristic to break it into smaller, more manageable parts. Principle of Charity - ANSWERSIs like giving someone the benefit of the doubt; it's the practice of interpreting a speaker's statements in the most rational and positive way possible, even when there's ambiguity or a potential for misinterpretation. Example: If someone makes an unclear statement, you might choose to interpret it in a way that makes the most sense and assumes the best intentions, following the Principle of Charity. Direct Support - ANSWERSIs when one premise explicitly supports the conclusion without relying on any other premises. Picture: In an argument map, direct support can be represented by a straight line connecting the premise to the conclusion. Example: Premise 1: All men are mortal. Premise 2: Socrates is a man. Conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is mortal. In this argument, Premise 1 directly supports the Conclusion by providing a clear and explicit connection. Indirect Support - ANSWERSIs when one premise provides support for another premise, which in turn supports the conclusion. Picture: In an argument map, indirect support can be represented by a line connecting one premise to another premise, and then from that premise to the conclusion. Example: Premise 1: If it's raining (indirect support for premise 2), then I'll bring an umbrella. Premise 2: It's raining. Conclusion: Therefore, I'll bring an umbrella. Here, Premise 1 indirectly supports Premise 2, and then Premise 2 supports the Conclusion. Conjoint Support - ANSWERSis when multiple premises work together to collectively support the conclusion, and none of them individually provides sufficient support. Picture: In an argument map, conjoint support can be represented by multiple premises connected to the conclusion and also connected to each other, forming a network of support. Example: Premise 1: Only people with tickets can enter the concert venue. Premise 2: You have a ticket. Premise 3: You are not banned from the venue. Conclusion: Therefore, you can enter the concert venue. In this argument, all three premises work together to collectively support the Conclusion. Hidden Assumptions - ANSWERSAre unstated premises or beliefs that are necessary for the argument to be valid but are not explicitly mentioned. Picture: In an argument map, hidden assumptions are not explicitly shown but are implied as missing premises that would need to be included for the argument to be complete and valid. They can be represented as dotted lines or indicated with a label like "Assumption." Example: Premise: The car is red. Conclusion: The car will go fast. A hidden assumption in this argument is that red cars go fast, which is not explicitly stated but is necessary for the argument to make sense. Ad Hominem - ANSWERSIn an argument, this is an attack on the person rather than on the opponent's ideas. It comes from the Latin meaning "against the man." Example: "Don't listen to John's idea about reducing pollution; he's always late to work." — This attacks John's punctuality, not his argument about pollution. Genetic Fallacy - ANSWERSCondemning an argument because of where it began, how it began, or who began it. Like judging a book by its author. Example: "That idea can't be true; it came from a website with a conspiracy theory reputation." — This dismisses the idea based on the source. Straw Figure - ANSWERSIt's a fallacy where you misrepresent someone's argument to make it easier to attack. Example: "Opponents of the new policy say we should just let criminals run free." — This misrepresents the actual argument opposing the policy. Red Herring - ANSWERSA fallacy that introduces an irrelevant issue to divert attention from the subject under discussion. Example: During a debate about climate change, someone starts talking about job creation, diverting attention from the environmental issue. Appeal to Authority - ANSWERSis like trusting an expert's opinion; it's a fallacy where you argue that something must be true because an authority figure or expert believes it. Example: "We should all buy this product because a famous actor endorses it." — This relies on the actor's fame, not evidence about the product. Appeal to Force - ANSWERSIs like using threats to make a point; it's a fallacy where you use force or threats to persuade someone to accept your argument. Example: "You better agree with my plan, or else you'll regret it!" — This relies on intimidation, not reasoned argument. Appeal to Popularity - ANSWERSIs like following the crowd; it's a fallacy where you argue that something must be true or good because many people believe or do it. Example: "Everyone is getting the latest phone; it must be the best!" — This assumes popularity equals quality. Appeal to Consequences - ANSWERSIs like scaring someone into agreement; it's a fallacy where you argue that something must be true or false based on the positive or negative consequences it might have. Example: "If we don't pass this law, society will collapse!" — This uses fear of consequences to support an argument. Equivocation - ANSWERSIs like wordplay trickery; it's a fallacy where you use a word with multiple meanings in different parts of the argument, leading to confusion. Example: "A feather is light; what is light cannot be dark; therefore, a feather cannot be dark." — Equivocation on the word "light." Appeal to Ignorance - ANSWERSA fallacy that uses an opponent's inability to disprove a conclusion as proof of the conclusion's correctness. Example: "There's no proof that aliens don't exist, so they must be out there." — This assumes something is true due to lack of evidence to the contrary. Slippery Slope - ANSWERSA fallacy that assumes that taking a first step will lead to subsequent steps that cannot be prevented. Example: "If we allow one extra day of vacation, employees will keep asking for more until we go bankrupt!" — This assumes a series of negative events with little evidence. Texas Sharpshooter - ANSWERSIs like aiming at the bullseye after the fact; it's a fallacy where you cherry-pick data or evidence after the fact to make it seem as if your argument is valid. Example: Someone throws darts at a barn, then draws a target around the cluster of darts and claims they are a skilled marksman. Post Hoc - ANSWERSBlaming something that has no connection with the problem. Example: "I wore my lucky socks, and we won the game; therefore, my socks must have brought us luck." Hasty Generalization - ANSWERSIt's a fallacy where you draw a conclusion based on insufficient or biased evidence. Example: "I met two rude people from that city, so everyone from there must be rude." — This generalizes from a small sample to a large population. False Dilemma - ANSWERSA fallacy of oversimplification that offers a limited number of options (usually two) when in fact more options are available. Example: "Either you're with us or against us!" — This falsely assumes there are only two possible positions. Begging the Question - ANSWERSA fallacy in which a claim is based on evidence or support that is in doubt. Example: "The Bible is the word of God because God wrote it, and we know this because the Bible says so." — This argument assumes the conclusion from the start. Burden of Proof Shifting - ANSWERSIt's a fallacy where someone asserts a claim and then shifts the burden of proof to the opposing side to disprove it. Example: "I believe in ghosts. Prove me wrong." — This shifts the responsibility to disprove the claim to the skeptic, even though the burden of proof should rest on the one making the extraordinary claim.