Inhoud
Week 1 Introducton to edia and adolescent develop ent...................................................................2
Adolescent develop ent and psychological echanis s in interactve edia use..............................2
Chapter 2 Learning in a Digital Age: Toward a new ecology of hu an develop ent............................6
The science of fake news.......................................................................................................................8
Week 2 Social edia and adolescent develop ent..................................................................................9
Online co unicaton a ong adolescents: An integrated odel of its atractonn opportunitesn and
risks.......................................................................................................................................................9
Social edia use and social connectedness in adolescents: The positves and the potental piialls. .11
Do social network sites enhance or under ine subjectve well-being? A critcal review....................13
Week 3 Social edian ga ing and parents..............................................................................................16
Media as agents of socializaton..........................................................................................................16
Social cognitve theory of ass co unicaton..................................................................................19
Bidirectonal effects of internet-specifc parentng practces and co pulsive social edia and
internet ga e use................................................................................................................................22
Week 4 Ga ing.......................................................................................................................................24
The digital divide shifs to differences in usage...................................................................................24
Working towards an internatonal consensus on criteria for assessing internet ga ing disorder: a
critcal co entary on cetry et al.......................................................................................................26
Week 5 Ga ing behavior and adolescent develop ent.........................................................................29
A otvatonal odel of video ga e engage ent..............................................................................29
Integratng psychological and neurobiological consideratons regarding the develop ent and
aintenance of specifc internet-use disorders: An interacton of person-affect-cogniton-eeecuton
(I-cACE) odel.....................................................................................................................................32
Using serious ga es to (re)train cogniton in adolescents..................................................................37
Week 6 Music and adolescents’ wellbeing..............................................................................................38
The role of usic in everyday life: Current directons in the social psychology of usic....................38
Risk of depression and self-har in teenagers identfying with goth subculture: a longitudinal cohort
study....................................................................................................................................................40
Week 7 Music and risk behavior..............................................................................................................41
Early adolescent usic preferences and inor delinquency...............................................................41
Gangstasn thugsn and hustlas: Identty and the code of the street in rap usic..................................42
The effects of risk-glorifying edia eeposure on risk-positve cognitonsn e otonsn and behaviors: a
eta-analytc review...........................................................................................................................45
Week 8 Music and friendships.................................................................................................................49
crospectve influence of usic-related edia eeposure on adolescent substance-use initaton: A
peer group ediaton odel...............................................................................................................49
The role of usic preferences in early adolescents’ friendship for aton and stability.....................50
1
,Week 1 Introduction to media and adolescent
development
Adolescent development and psychological mechanisms in
interactive media use
Introducton
There is an urgent need for a beter understanding of how new co unicaton technology and
adolescent develop ent intersect and how this ay i pact conte porary youth.
Features of new edia technology that intersect with needs fulfll ent in adolescence
Although it ight be hard to draw a clear line between the old media and the new median the later is
usually understood as including digital and interactve co unicaton technology. Howevern a lot of
the newer edia for ats ay also be used in si ilar ways as older edia because practcally all edia
fare is available through the internet these days. I portant differences between the older and newer
edia in how they are generated referred to not only concern a ore actve and interactve edia usen
but also the technologically advanced obility of new edia devices. Hencen on the one handn new
edia technology evokes higher levels of involvement in the act of co unicatonn while on the other
handn allows for a continuous connectedness. This ay have i portant i plicatons for how today’s
youngsters will develop.
The develop ental stage of adolescence is characterized by a relatvely strong egocentric
perspectve due to cognitve li itatons because the prefrontal cortee in the brain has not yet fully
developed. Adolescent egocentrism co es with pheno ena like an ‘imaginary audience’ and
‘personal fable’. Interestnglyn the interactve and user-generated tools of new edia see to closely
connect to these pheno ena.
New edia and adolescents’ belief in an i aginary audience and personal fable
The concept of ‘imaginary audience’ refers to the adolescent’s belief that he or she is contnuously
watched and evaluated by others. The concept of ‘personal fable’ is related to the i aginary audiencen
the adolescent believes that he or she is highly special and unique. The possibilites offered by social
edia to act out one’s personal fable and further support the adolescent beliefs in such a fable ay
also lend further support to his i aginary audience. It see s that ost individuals present the selves
ore positvely on personalized websites than they in fact are (datng sites) – idealized selves are
portrayed through virtually aterialized personal fables. Social edia ay provide a rich plaior to
fulfll the need for a personal fable and to give eepression to one’s felt uniqueness and having ‘all eyes
on e’.
Identty for aton and new edia technology
Another strong need in adolescent develop ent is gender and identity formationn which drives
adolescences to look for atractve role odels to identfy with. New edia technology increased the
potental for eeploring role odels enor ouslyn not only in nu bers butn ore i portantlyn also in
allowing to create one’s own possible self in uch ore integrated and dyna ic ways.
ceer influence in new edia environ ents
When studying adolescencen the increasingly important role of peers cannot be overlookedn who then
ofen beco e ore i portant than the adolescent’s parents. The newer co unicaton technologies
provide a ple opportunites and in fact new ways through which peer co unicate and influence
each othern ore so than in traditonal edia. Not only through the enor ous a ount of self-
eeposure on SNSsn but also through the optons of direct feedback on what is posted online.
Further oren adolescents are not only eeposed to the ore traditonal edia odels like celebrites
and fashion odelsn but also to a large nu ber of daily life ‘age- ates’. Adolescents strongly depend
on their peers for e otonal security and nor atve behavior while secure relatonships with peers are
2
, associated with social and e otonal co petence. Howevern there are also backsidesn like
cyberbullying behavior. A closely related issue where peers eeert a strong influence on adolescents is
the feeling to not belong and be rejected by peers.
In a si ilar veinn the pressure peers pursue on each other to confor to in-group standardsn
nor sn and valuesn highly co on a ong adolescentsn ay be further increased through the eeplicit
eepressions of individual opinions and postngs of eee plars that are available to any at once and
created upon wish over and over again through new edia technology.
Underlying psychological echanis s adding to co unicaton technology’s effectveness
Wishful identifatin with ideal selves and ithers: In the ore traditonal edian identification has
ost ofen been interpreted as similarity identification - the observer and the ‘subject of
identfcaton’ share salient characteristcs and si ilarity in feeling and thinking follows fro an
i aginary erging of observer and character. Given a nu ber of si ilarites between the character
and the observern the observer ay ore easily take over the perspectve at the world through the
eyes of the character. In newer edia howevern the player ofen ‘inhabits’ the charactern thus posing
another view on the interpretaton of ‘identfcaton’. Identfcaton of the player (‘observer’) with a
virtual character usually take places through actual ‘embodiment’ in the for of an avatar. In wishful
identificationn the desire to e ulate the character is key; the wish to be like or beco e like an ad ired
other – so eone who possess qualites one wishes to have oneselfn while the self-other distncton is
clear. Interactve co unicaton technology akes it partcularly salient to distnguish between
similarity and wishful identification. Research showed that wishful identfcaton acted as a signifcant
underlying echanis in eeertng effects in the behavior of adolescents’ boys afer playing interactve
ga es.
Perfeived realism if interaftve and virtual envirinments: New co unicaton technology poses
challenges to the percepton of realism. It see s that the percepton of realis fro the player’s
perspective is of relevance heren not per se reflectng the producer’s clai s or an outsider’s evaluaton
of whether a ga e is fantasy or reality-based. The study found that the eetent to which the level of
realis was perceived signifcantly contributed to the wish to be like the hero in the ga e.
Further oren they found that those who perceived ore realis in fctonal content were also inclined
to atribute higher levels of infor aton value to such edia portrayals. Hencen perceived realis of
virtual and ediated content ay act as an i portant underlying echanis in affectng the user of
new edia.
The distncton between the real worlds in which the adolescents live ay get increasingly
blurred with the virtual worlds in which they co unicaten eetending the real world in cyberspace and
the vice versa. This requires increasingly sophistcated judge ents to deter ine what is fctonal and
factual. In specifcally addressing adolescentsn cognitve skills are stll developing and those who are
further developed are probably beter able to reflect on the fabricated nature of digital ga es and
virtual worlds. Our research further shows that the ore e otonal people are when processing
edian the ore likely they will believe it. Thusn e otons ay blur perceptons of the factual and
fctonaln in partcular in the highly interactve and graphically rich environ ents of new edia
technology.
Emitin regulatin need and miralit8 in adilesfentsi use if new media: Adolescents see to seek
relief in using edia. Such e otonal needs ay act as an underlying echanis in being affected by
that edian because e oton regulaton needs ay drive the adolescents to use a specifc type of
edia. It see s that the specifc co binaton of the develop ental stage of adolescencen an intensely
felt unpleasant e otonal staten and affordances of new co unicaton technology which draws peer-
rejected adolescents to consu e antsocial edia contentn further guides by an increased intolerance
towards orally adverse edia content. In line with this researchn it is found that being a vict of
3
Week 1 Introducton to edia and adolescent develop ent...................................................................2
Adolescent develop ent and psychological echanis s in interactve edia use..............................2
Chapter 2 Learning in a Digital Age: Toward a new ecology of hu an develop ent............................6
The science of fake news.......................................................................................................................8
Week 2 Social edia and adolescent develop ent..................................................................................9
Online co unicaton a ong adolescents: An integrated odel of its atractonn opportunitesn and
risks.......................................................................................................................................................9
Social edia use and social connectedness in adolescents: The positves and the potental piialls. .11
Do social network sites enhance or under ine subjectve well-being? A critcal review....................13
Week 3 Social edian ga ing and parents..............................................................................................16
Media as agents of socializaton..........................................................................................................16
Social cognitve theory of ass co unicaton..................................................................................19
Bidirectonal effects of internet-specifc parentng practces and co pulsive social edia and
internet ga e use................................................................................................................................22
Week 4 Ga ing.......................................................................................................................................24
The digital divide shifs to differences in usage...................................................................................24
Working towards an internatonal consensus on criteria for assessing internet ga ing disorder: a
critcal co entary on cetry et al.......................................................................................................26
Week 5 Ga ing behavior and adolescent develop ent.........................................................................29
A otvatonal odel of video ga e engage ent..............................................................................29
Integratng psychological and neurobiological consideratons regarding the develop ent and
aintenance of specifc internet-use disorders: An interacton of person-affect-cogniton-eeecuton
(I-cACE) odel.....................................................................................................................................32
Using serious ga es to (re)train cogniton in adolescents..................................................................37
Week 6 Music and adolescents’ wellbeing..............................................................................................38
The role of usic in everyday life: Current directons in the social psychology of usic....................38
Risk of depression and self-har in teenagers identfying with goth subculture: a longitudinal cohort
study....................................................................................................................................................40
Week 7 Music and risk behavior..............................................................................................................41
Early adolescent usic preferences and inor delinquency...............................................................41
Gangstasn thugsn and hustlas: Identty and the code of the street in rap usic..................................42
The effects of risk-glorifying edia eeposure on risk-positve cognitonsn e otonsn and behaviors: a
eta-analytc review...........................................................................................................................45
Week 8 Music and friendships.................................................................................................................49
crospectve influence of usic-related edia eeposure on adolescent substance-use initaton: A
peer group ediaton odel...............................................................................................................49
The role of usic preferences in early adolescents’ friendship for aton and stability.....................50
1
,Week 1 Introduction to media and adolescent
development
Adolescent development and psychological mechanisms in
interactive media use
Introducton
There is an urgent need for a beter understanding of how new co unicaton technology and
adolescent develop ent intersect and how this ay i pact conte porary youth.
Features of new edia technology that intersect with needs fulfll ent in adolescence
Although it ight be hard to draw a clear line between the old media and the new median the later is
usually understood as including digital and interactve co unicaton technology. Howevern a lot of
the newer edia for ats ay also be used in si ilar ways as older edia because practcally all edia
fare is available through the internet these days. I portant differences between the older and newer
edia in how they are generated referred to not only concern a ore actve and interactve edia usen
but also the technologically advanced obility of new edia devices. Hencen on the one handn new
edia technology evokes higher levels of involvement in the act of co unicatonn while on the other
handn allows for a continuous connectedness. This ay have i portant i plicatons for how today’s
youngsters will develop.
The develop ental stage of adolescence is characterized by a relatvely strong egocentric
perspectve due to cognitve li itatons because the prefrontal cortee in the brain has not yet fully
developed. Adolescent egocentrism co es with pheno ena like an ‘imaginary audience’ and
‘personal fable’. Interestnglyn the interactve and user-generated tools of new edia see to closely
connect to these pheno ena.
New edia and adolescents’ belief in an i aginary audience and personal fable
The concept of ‘imaginary audience’ refers to the adolescent’s belief that he or she is contnuously
watched and evaluated by others. The concept of ‘personal fable’ is related to the i aginary audiencen
the adolescent believes that he or she is highly special and unique. The possibilites offered by social
edia to act out one’s personal fable and further support the adolescent beliefs in such a fable ay
also lend further support to his i aginary audience. It see s that ost individuals present the selves
ore positvely on personalized websites than they in fact are (datng sites) – idealized selves are
portrayed through virtually aterialized personal fables. Social edia ay provide a rich plaior to
fulfll the need for a personal fable and to give eepression to one’s felt uniqueness and having ‘all eyes
on e’.
Identty for aton and new edia technology
Another strong need in adolescent develop ent is gender and identity formationn which drives
adolescences to look for atractve role odels to identfy with. New edia technology increased the
potental for eeploring role odels enor ouslyn not only in nu bers butn ore i portantlyn also in
allowing to create one’s own possible self in uch ore integrated and dyna ic ways.
ceer influence in new edia environ ents
When studying adolescencen the increasingly important role of peers cannot be overlookedn who then
ofen beco e ore i portant than the adolescent’s parents. The newer co unicaton technologies
provide a ple opportunites and in fact new ways through which peer co unicate and influence
each othern ore so than in traditonal edia. Not only through the enor ous a ount of self-
eeposure on SNSsn but also through the optons of direct feedback on what is posted online.
Further oren adolescents are not only eeposed to the ore traditonal edia odels like celebrites
and fashion odelsn but also to a large nu ber of daily life ‘age- ates’. Adolescents strongly depend
on their peers for e otonal security and nor atve behavior while secure relatonships with peers are
2
, associated with social and e otonal co petence. Howevern there are also backsidesn like
cyberbullying behavior. A closely related issue where peers eeert a strong influence on adolescents is
the feeling to not belong and be rejected by peers.
In a si ilar veinn the pressure peers pursue on each other to confor to in-group standardsn
nor sn and valuesn highly co on a ong adolescentsn ay be further increased through the eeplicit
eepressions of individual opinions and postngs of eee plars that are available to any at once and
created upon wish over and over again through new edia technology.
Underlying psychological echanis s adding to co unicaton technology’s effectveness
Wishful identifatin with ideal selves and ithers: In the ore traditonal edian identification has
ost ofen been interpreted as similarity identification - the observer and the ‘subject of
identfcaton’ share salient characteristcs and si ilarity in feeling and thinking follows fro an
i aginary erging of observer and character. Given a nu ber of si ilarites between the character
and the observern the observer ay ore easily take over the perspectve at the world through the
eyes of the character. In newer edia howevern the player ofen ‘inhabits’ the charactern thus posing
another view on the interpretaton of ‘identfcaton’. Identfcaton of the player (‘observer’) with a
virtual character usually take places through actual ‘embodiment’ in the for of an avatar. In wishful
identificationn the desire to e ulate the character is key; the wish to be like or beco e like an ad ired
other – so eone who possess qualites one wishes to have oneselfn while the self-other distncton is
clear. Interactve co unicaton technology akes it partcularly salient to distnguish between
similarity and wishful identification. Research showed that wishful identfcaton acted as a signifcant
underlying echanis in eeertng effects in the behavior of adolescents’ boys afer playing interactve
ga es.
Perfeived realism if interaftve and virtual envirinments: New co unicaton technology poses
challenges to the percepton of realism. It see s that the percepton of realis fro the player’s
perspective is of relevance heren not per se reflectng the producer’s clai s or an outsider’s evaluaton
of whether a ga e is fantasy or reality-based. The study found that the eetent to which the level of
realis was perceived signifcantly contributed to the wish to be like the hero in the ga e.
Further oren they found that those who perceived ore realis in fctonal content were also inclined
to atribute higher levels of infor aton value to such edia portrayals. Hencen perceived realis of
virtual and ediated content ay act as an i portant underlying echanis in affectng the user of
new edia.
The distncton between the real worlds in which the adolescents live ay get increasingly
blurred with the virtual worlds in which they co unicaten eetending the real world in cyberspace and
the vice versa. This requires increasingly sophistcated judge ents to deter ine what is fctonal and
factual. In specifcally addressing adolescentsn cognitve skills are stll developing and those who are
further developed are probably beter able to reflect on the fabricated nature of digital ga es and
virtual worlds. Our research further shows that the ore e otonal people are when processing
edian the ore likely they will believe it. Thusn e otons ay blur perceptons of the factual and
fctonaln in partcular in the highly interactve and graphically rich environ ents of new edia
technology.
Emitin regulatin need and miralit8 in adilesfentsi use if new media: Adolescents see to seek
relief in using edia. Such e otonal needs ay act as an underlying echanis in being affected by
that edian because e oton regulaton needs ay drive the adolescents to use a specifc type of
edia. It see s that the specifc co binaton of the develop ental stage of adolescencen an intensely
felt unpleasant e otonal staten and affordances of new co unicaton technology which draws peer-
rejected adolescents to consu e antsocial edia contentn further guides by an increased intolerance
towards orally adverse edia content. In line with this researchn it is found that being a vict of
3
