Lecture 1: Introduction
Crime as a construct?
Mainstream and traditional views of crime: crime has been viewed through a lens of pathology
or biological determinism (= criminal behavior stems from inherent traits within individuals
or specific groups.
Criminal law offers a strict definition and criteria of what is a criminal act and what behavioral
components are prerequisites to define a criminal.
o It portrays humans a s rational actors making conscious decisions to engage in
criminal behavior.
Legal frameworks often prioritize factual evidence and scientific truth (= “fetishizations of
facts”).
BUT: law itself is a societal construct
o Critical (and subsequently Cultural/Feminist) Criminology – beyond the law
This perspective challenges the notion of law as objective, essential, and
irrefutable
This perspective highlights the role of law as a societal construct that reflects
the interests and power dynamics of dominant groups: who is the criminal and
who is (conveniently) left out?
This perspective emphasizes structural factors: individualization,
urbanization, immigration, class struggle
o Subjective experiences, socioeconomic and historical context
Crime and Deviance as a social construct (Constructivist Approach)
News media = print media, broadcast news (television, radio, internet).
New media = social media, blogs, forums (digital).
Popular media = movies, film, music, podcasts, books.
Theorizing crime in the media:
Crime as a topic or genre remains vastly popular
Media serves as a source of information and entertainment
Continued debate on the effects of media portrayals of crime and our perceptions of crime and
criminality
o Media representations of crime can perpetuate stereotypes, reinforce fear of crime,
and distort perceptions of risk.
Does the media affect us? Have crime and violence increased with the proliferation of media?
Mass Society Theory
Late 19th and early 20th century
o Fundamental changes in the organization of modern societies
o Positivism, behaviorism and bio-psychological approaches in social sciences
Behavior is a response to external stimuli, which can be predicted through biological or
psychological factors, or conditioned through learned experiences.
Scientific approach to crime: principles of natural sciences (biological, medicine, etc.) applied
to the study criminology (= scientism)
Scientific research, trials seeking to find cause-and-effect relationships
o Crime as a result of free will criminality as inevitable fate for certain individuals
, Policies aiming at the prediction and prevention of crime by identifying individuals deemed to
be at risk of criminal behavior based on scientific criteria.
This theory proposes a cause-and-effect relationship between the media and mass society
o Media could inject society with values, morals, and information that affects behavior
and thought. This is illustrated through the Hypodermic Syringe Model, which posits
that media messages are directly injected into the minds of passive audiences, shaping
their attitudes and behaviors.
Portrayals of crime and violence in the media may lead to moral panic, which refers to a
feeling of fear or anxiety over a perceived threat to societal values or norms, often fueled by
sensationalized media representations of a particular issue or group.
Portrayals of crime and violence in the media may lead to folk devils: individuals or groups
who become the focus of moral panic during periods of heightened concern about a particular
issue.
Strain Theory and Anomie Theory:
Emile Durkheim (1895): Anomie a breakdown of the moral authority of collective
consciousness where society cannot regulate the appetites of individual conscience, leading to
a state of normlessness, where individuals feel disconnected from society. This can result in
mass non-conformity and an increase in crime rates.
Robert Merton (1938): Strain Theory “appetites” are not natural human characteristics but
created by cultural influences.
o Individuals are pushed to achieve culturally defined goals (success, money, beauty)
o Not all individuals have equal access to the means necessary to achieve these goals.
o This inability to do so creates “strain”, which leads to criminal behavior.
Anomie and strain are created by the mass media, affecting those that are isolated from
society, by constantly exposing these individuals to the goals that they are unable to attain.
Builds on the Hypodermic Syringe Model: values and images of success are “injected” into
society (mass media ‘feed’ us the cultural goals)
Those who cannot achieve these goals face strain which will push some individuals to non-
conform or criminal behavior.
Dominant Ideology Approach:
Mid-20th century: critique of capitalism
Karl Marx: society is controlled by the elite, which exploits the lower classes (society as a
structure).
Antonio Gramsci:
o Introduced the concept of hegemony: the dominance exercised by powerful groups
over societal norms, values, and behaviors.
o These hegemonic cultures are accepted as “common sense” This form of control
allows the ruling class to maintain their power.
o Consent over violence (subtle refinement of the Marxist framework)
Radical Criminology and Critical Criminology:
o Crime and criminal are labels attached to people or behavior by powerful class to
control certain groups within society (= Labelling Theory)
o Importance of structural inequalities in determining crime and criminality
, Media representations may support or (more rarely) challenge the dominant
definitions of a situation, and they can extend, legitimize, celebrate or criticize
the prevailing discourses at any given time (Jewkes, 2004).
o The “media” is owned by corporations and organizations Media representations of
crime are not neutral but are influenced by the interests of powerful actors, such as
corporations and government institutions (= Political Economy Approach)
Hierarchy of Credibility: certain perspectives are privileged over others based on their
alignment with dominant ideologies.
Propaganda Model: media outlets serve the interests of elite groups by selectively presenting
information that supports their agendas.
Pluralism:
1980s – 1990s
Counter argument for the Dominant Ideology Approach because of changing media
landscapes and the rise of neoliberal economic policies.
In a free market, there exists a plurality of media sources and channels, providing a forum for
all views (state regulation vs. privatization) Media outlets may compete for audiences and
advertising revenue, resulting in diversity in media content.
Criticism: this proliferation of media sources has led to information overload, because media
outlets may prioritize sensationalism and entertainment over in-depth analysis reporting.
= Soundbite Journalism: complex issues are simplified or condensed into short, catchy
phrases to capture the attention of the receiver.
= Infotainment: the presentation of news in a format that prioritizes entertainment over
journalistic integrity, it blends news reporting with sensationalism to capture the attention of
the receiver.
Post-modern & Post-structural turn
Post-modernity & post-structuralism: late 20th century onwards
o It encourages questioning what is taken for granted and what claims all-encompassing
answers.
o Era of pessimism – era of excess (in the information-knowledge continuum)
Knowledge (about crime/criminals) itself: constructed, changing, and contingent upon
contexts.
o Concepts: it recognizes the fluidity and plurality of terminology (such as ‘crime’ and
‘deterrence’)
o Institutions: it is critical towards institutions such as the state, police, and criminal
justice system, because of the ways in which these institutions exercise power and
control.
o Laws
o Rituals (punishment, reintegration)
o Practices
Cultural Criminology: Crime as a cultural event
The audience has agency to choose what to consume and what to ignore
Excess of information has led to a competitive landscape where media outlets try to attract
attention
o What happens when information becomes entertainment?
Crime as a construct?
Mainstream and traditional views of crime: crime has been viewed through a lens of pathology
or biological determinism (= criminal behavior stems from inherent traits within individuals
or specific groups.
Criminal law offers a strict definition and criteria of what is a criminal act and what behavioral
components are prerequisites to define a criminal.
o It portrays humans a s rational actors making conscious decisions to engage in
criminal behavior.
Legal frameworks often prioritize factual evidence and scientific truth (= “fetishizations of
facts”).
BUT: law itself is a societal construct
o Critical (and subsequently Cultural/Feminist) Criminology – beyond the law
This perspective challenges the notion of law as objective, essential, and
irrefutable
This perspective highlights the role of law as a societal construct that reflects
the interests and power dynamics of dominant groups: who is the criminal and
who is (conveniently) left out?
This perspective emphasizes structural factors: individualization,
urbanization, immigration, class struggle
o Subjective experiences, socioeconomic and historical context
Crime and Deviance as a social construct (Constructivist Approach)
News media = print media, broadcast news (television, radio, internet).
New media = social media, blogs, forums (digital).
Popular media = movies, film, music, podcasts, books.
Theorizing crime in the media:
Crime as a topic or genre remains vastly popular
Media serves as a source of information and entertainment
Continued debate on the effects of media portrayals of crime and our perceptions of crime and
criminality
o Media representations of crime can perpetuate stereotypes, reinforce fear of crime,
and distort perceptions of risk.
Does the media affect us? Have crime and violence increased with the proliferation of media?
Mass Society Theory
Late 19th and early 20th century
o Fundamental changes in the organization of modern societies
o Positivism, behaviorism and bio-psychological approaches in social sciences
Behavior is a response to external stimuli, which can be predicted through biological or
psychological factors, or conditioned through learned experiences.
Scientific approach to crime: principles of natural sciences (biological, medicine, etc.) applied
to the study criminology (= scientism)
Scientific research, trials seeking to find cause-and-effect relationships
o Crime as a result of free will criminality as inevitable fate for certain individuals
, Policies aiming at the prediction and prevention of crime by identifying individuals deemed to
be at risk of criminal behavior based on scientific criteria.
This theory proposes a cause-and-effect relationship between the media and mass society
o Media could inject society with values, morals, and information that affects behavior
and thought. This is illustrated through the Hypodermic Syringe Model, which posits
that media messages are directly injected into the minds of passive audiences, shaping
their attitudes and behaviors.
Portrayals of crime and violence in the media may lead to moral panic, which refers to a
feeling of fear or anxiety over a perceived threat to societal values or norms, often fueled by
sensationalized media representations of a particular issue or group.
Portrayals of crime and violence in the media may lead to folk devils: individuals or groups
who become the focus of moral panic during periods of heightened concern about a particular
issue.
Strain Theory and Anomie Theory:
Emile Durkheim (1895): Anomie a breakdown of the moral authority of collective
consciousness where society cannot regulate the appetites of individual conscience, leading to
a state of normlessness, where individuals feel disconnected from society. This can result in
mass non-conformity and an increase in crime rates.
Robert Merton (1938): Strain Theory “appetites” are not natural human characteristics but
created by cultural influences.
o Individuals are pushed to achieve culturally defined goals (success, money, beauty)
o Not all individuals have equal access to the means necessary to achieve these goals.
o This inability to do so creates “strain”, which leads to criminal behavior.
Anomie and strain are created by the mass media, affecting those that are isolated from
society, by constantly exposing these individuals to the goals that they are unable to attain.
Builds on the Hypodermic Syringe Model: values and images of success are “injected” into
society (mass media ‘feed’ us the cultural goals)
Those who cannot achieve these goals face strain which will push some individuals to non-
conform or criminal behavior.
Dominant Ideology Approach:
Mid-20th century: critique of capitalism
Karl Marx: society is controlled by the elite, which exploits the lower classes (society as a
structure).
Antonio Gramsci:
o Introduced the concept of hegemony: the dominance exercised by powerful groups
over societal norms, values, and behaviors.
o These hegemonic cultures are accepted as “common sense” This form of control
allows the ruling class to maintain their power.
o Consent over violence (subtle refinement of the Marxist framework)
Radical Criminology and Critical Criminology:
o Crime and criminal are labels attached to people or behavior by powerful class to
control certain groups within society (= Labelling Theory)
o Importance of structural inequalities in determining crime and criminality
, Media representations may support or (more rarely) challenge the dominant
definitions of a situation, and they can extend, legitimize, celebrate or criticize
the prevailing discourses at any given time (Jewkes, 2004).
o The “media” is owned by corporations and organizations Media representations of
crime are not neutral but are influenced by the interests of powerful actors, such as
corporations and government institutions (= Political Economy Approach)
Hierarchy of Credibility: certain perspectives are privileged over others based on their
alignment with dominant ideologies.
Propaganda Model: media outlets serve the interests of elite groups by selectively presenting
information that supports their agendas.
Pluralism:
1980s – 1990s
Counter argument for the Dominant Ideology Approach because of changing media
landscapes and the rise of neoliberal economic policies.
In a free market, there exists a plurality of media sources and channels, providing a forum for
all views (state regulation vs. privatization) Media outlets may compete for audiences and
advertising revenue, resulting in diversity in media content.
Criticism: this proliferation of media sources has led to information overload, because media
outlets may prioritize sensationalism and entertainment over in-depth analysis reporting.
= Soundbite Journalism: complex issues are simplified or condensed into short, catchy
phrases to capture the attention of the receiver.
= Infotainment: the presentation of news in a format that prioritizes entertainment over
journalistic integrity, it blends news reporting with sensationalism to capture the attention of
the receiver.
Post-modern & Post-structural turn
Post-modernity & post-structuralism: late 20th century onwards
o It encourages questioning what is taken for granted and what claims all-encompassing
answers.
o Era of pessimism – era of excess (in the information-knowledge continuum)
Knowledge (about crime/criminals) itself: constructed, changing, and contingent upon
contexts.
o Concepts: it recognizes the fluidity and plurality of terminology (such as ‘crime’ and
‘deterrence’)
o Institutions: it is critical towards institutions such as the state, police, and criminal
justice system, because of the ways in which these institutions exercise power and
control.
o Laws
o Rituals (punishment, reintegration)
o Practices
Cultural Criminology: Crime as a cultural event
The audience has agency to choose what to consume and what to ignore
Excess of information has led to a competitive landscape where media outlets try to attract
attention
o What happens when information becomes entertainment?
