PSYC 375 Final Exam Questions and Answers Updated 2024/2025 (VERIFIED 100%)

What were the 4 stages of early American psychology? - Answer- Stage 1: Moral and Mental Philosophy () Stage 2: intellectual philosophy () Stage 3: The US Renaissance () Stage 4: US Functionalism (1896 & beyond) What were the beliefs during the first stage of early American psychology ()? - Answer- "Psychology existed for the sake of logic, and logic for the sake of God" What event caused the beginning of enlightenment during the first stage of early American psychology ()? - Answer- It began in 1714 when John Locke's "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding" (1690) reached the US colonies and had a widespread influence What were the beliefs during the second stage of early American psychology (1776- 1886)? - Answer- Psychology became a separate discipline largely under the influence of Scottish commonsense philosophy and believed in naive realism when it came to God What were 4 events that brought on the third stage of early American psychology (1886- 1896)? - Answer- (1) Herbert Spencer's Principles of Psychology (1880) (2) John Dewey's Psychology (1886) (3) American Journal of Psychology (1887) (4) William James's The Principles of Psychology (1890) What were the beliefs during the third stage of early American psychology ()? - Answer- Titchener's structuralism competed with functionalism. It was also a fertile ground for the development of practices to help individuals live more effective lives like physiognomy, phrenology, mesmerism, and spiritualism What were the beliefs during the fourth stage of early American psychology (1896 & beyond)? - Answer- Science, a concern for practicality, an emphasis on the individual, and evolutionary theory combined into the school of functionalism What event marked the beginning of the fourth stage of early American psychology (1896 & beyond)? - Answer- John Dewey's article "The Reflex Arc in Psychology." in 1896 marked the beginning of functionalism What are the 8 characteristics of functionalists psychology? - Answer- (1) opposed the sterile search for the elements of consciousness in like the structuralists PSYC 375 Final Exam Questions and Answers Updated 2024/2025 (VERIFIED A+) (2) wanted to understand the function of the mind rather than provide a static description of its contents. (3) wanted psychology to be a practical science, not a pure science, and they sought to apply their findings to the improvement of humanity (4) urged the broadening of psychology to include research on animals, children, and abnormal humans. They also accepted an eclectic methodology; from mazes to mental tests. (5) Because an organism will act differently in the same environment as its needs change, these needs must be understood before the organism's behavior can be understood. (6) accepted both mental processes and behavior as legitimate subject matter for psychology, and viewed introspection as a valid research tool (7) tended to be more ideographic than nomothetic, that is, they were more interested in what made organisms different from one another than what made them similar. (8) all were directly or indirectly influenced by William James. What caused William James's () crisis? - Answer- He became depressed because he believed that if materialism was correct, than anything that happened was beyond his control but he had a turning point when he read an essay on free will bye Renouvier and became a pragmatist and proposed radical empiricism What was the goal of William James's () book, The Principles of Psychology? - Answer- James tries to offer a fair consideration between the empirical and the rational, between the experimental and the phenomenological with the booked permeated with his themes of pragmatism and individuality How did William James's () define the stream of consciousness? - AnswerTerm for the way James thought the mind worked. James described the mind as consisting of an ever-changing stream of interrelated, purposive thoughts rather than static elements that could be isolated from one another, as the structuralists had suggested. What did William James () say were the 5 characteristics of consciousness? - Answer- (1) consciousness is personal; it reflects the experiences of an individual, and therefore, it is foolhardy to search for elements common to all minds. (2) consciousness is continuous and cannot be divided up for analysis (3) consciousness is constantly changing (4) consciousness is selective; some vents permeate while others are inhibited (5) conciseness is functional; its purpose is to aid the individual in adapting to the environment How did William James () define habits and instincts? - Answer- He believed that instinctual behaviour is modifiable by experience and, therefore, new instinct-like patterns of behaviour (called habits) develop throughout their lifetime. The habits are vital for the functioning of society, learning from experience to develop new neural pathways How did William James () define the empirical self and the 3 different types of self? - Answer- the self that consists of everything a person can call his or her own. The empirical self consists of the material self (all of one's material possessions), the social self (one's self as known by others), and the spiritual self (all of which a person is conscious). What did William James () believe about self-esteem? - Answer- How a person feels about himself or herself based on the ratio of successes to attempts. One can increase self-esteem either by accomplishing more or attempting less. What did William James () believe about emotions? - Answer- Perception, according to James, causes bodily reactions that are then experienced as emotions, reversing the traditional belief that emotion results from the perception of an event What did William James () believe about idea-motor theory of behaviour? - Answer- Ideas cause behavior, and thus we can control our behavior by controlling our ideas; ideas of actions flow immediately and automatically (habitually or reflexively) into behavior. What we think (concept that holds our attention) determines what we do, and what we do determines how we feel. What are the 2 types of personality of which pragmatism is a compromise between? - Answer- (1) Tender-minded people are rationalistic (principle-oriented), intellectual, idealistic, optimistic, religious, and dogmatic, and they believe in free will (2) tough-minded people are empiricistic (fact-oriented), sensationalistic, materialistic, pessimistic, irreligious, skeptical, and fatalistic. What did William James () contribute to psychology? - Answer- He helped incorporate evolutionary theory into psychology and expanded research techniques in psychology by not only accepting introspection but also encouraging any technique that promised to yield useful information about people. James's ideas are not only considered foundational for functional psychology and pragmatic philosophy but can be seen in behaviorism, cognitive science, and existential-phenomenological psychology, as well as clinical psychology and education What was Hugo Munsterberg's () approach to clinical psychology? - Answerreciprocal antagonism; a method of treating mentally disturbed individuals, whereby he would strengthen thoughts antagonistic to those causing a problem. Who was the first forensic psychologist? - Answer- Hugo Munsterberg () What did Hugo Munsterberg () accomplish in founding forensic psychology? - Answer- He pointed out that eyewitness testimony could be unreliable because sensory impressions could be illusory, suggestion and stress could affect perception, and memory is not always accurate. He also urged that psychological methods replace the brutal interrogation of criminals because interrogation can lead to false confessions. He published a book, On The Witness Stand (1908). Who is considered to be the founder of industrial psychology? - Answer- Hugo Munsterberg () Who invented the paired-association technique and how did it work? - Answer- The still widely used method of investigating verbal learning invented by Mary Calkins. Pairs of stimulus material are first presented to subjects and then, after several exposures, only one member of the pair is presented and the subject is asked to recall the second. Briefly describe the life of Mary Whiton Calkins ()? - Answer- Although satisfying all the requirements for a PhD at Harvard, she was denied the degree because she was a woman. In spite of such restrictions, Calkins made significant contributions to the study of verbal learning and memory and to self-psychology. Her many honors included being elected the first female president of the American Psychological Association in 1905. Briefly describe the life and work of Hugo Münsterberg ()? - AnswerStressed the application of psychological principles in such areas as clinical, forensic, and industrial psychology. In so doing, Münsterberg created applied psychology. Briefly describe the life and work of William James ()? - Answer- Was instrumental in the founding of functionalistic psychology. James emphasized the function of both consciousness and behavior. For him the only valid criterion for evaluating a theory, thought, or act is whether it works. In keeping with his pragmatism, he claimed that psychology needs to employ both scientific and nonscientific procedures. Similarly, on the individual level, sometimes one must believe in free will and at other times in determinism. Briefly describe the life and work of Granville Stanley Hall ()? - AnswerCreated the first U.S. experimental psychology laboratory, founded and became the first president of the American Psychological Association, and invited Freud to Clark University to give a series of lectures. Hall thus helped psychoanalysis receive international recognition. Many of the beliefs contained in his two-volume book on adolescence are now considered incorrect. Nonetheless, that work is currently seen as an important pioneering effort in educational, child, and adolescent psychology and in parent education and child welfare programs. What did Granville Stanley Hall () accomplish during his work at Clark University? - Answer- In 1888, Hall left Johns Hopkins to become the first president of Clark University in Worcester, Massachusetts, where he remained as professor, having a strong hand in shaping US psychology. In 1892, he formed and became the first president of the APA, also founding the Journals of Applied & of Religious Psychology What were the 2 areas of psychology in which Granville Stanley Hall () formed his legacy? - Answer- The psychology of religion and developmental psychology. He believed that evolutionary theory should be a guide for science because evolution explained not only the phylogenetic development of the human species but also the development of each individual. Hall said that all stages of human evolution are reflected in the life of an individual (called the recapitulation theory) What was Granville Stanley Hall's () book, Adolescence: Its Psychology and Its Relations to Physiology, Anthropology, Sociology, Sex, Crime, Religion and Education (2014) about? - Answer- It focused on a wide variety of topics, including growth norms, language development, diseases of childhood, hygiene, juvenile crime, lying, showing off, bashfulness, fear, curiosity, and friendship. Adolescence occurred between ages 14 and 24, and masturbation during that period was discussed in considerable detail and rejected that masturbation caused severe effects. What were Granville Stanley Hall's () 3 arguments against coeducation? - Answer- (1) that adolescence was a critical period in the development of the reproductive organs in women, women needed to trained to become mothers (2) that the adolescent male needed freedom to engage in cathartic expression of his savage impulses (3) that natural sexual differentiation during adolescence was the basis for later attraction between the sexes. What did Granville Stanley Hall () believe about psychology and religion? - Answer- Believed that religious conversion during adolescence was "a natural, normal, universal, and necessary process" which was the psychological process of subordinating the self to the needs of others. Sin, for him, was not a state of evil but a sense of limitation and imperfection that should be understood psychologically rather than in terms of theology. Briefly describe the life and work of Francis Cecil Sumner ()? - Answer- In 1920, under the supervision of Hall, became the first African American to obtain a PhD in psychology. Later, under Sumner's leadership, Howard University became a highly influential training center for African American psychologists. Briefly describe the life and work of Kenneth Clark (b. 1914)? - Answer- Along with his colleagues, conducted research that demonstrated the negative effects of segregation of children. A portion of this research was cited in the 1954 Supreme Court decision that ended the legal basis for segregated education in the United States. Clark went on to become the first African American president of the APA in 1970. Was a student of Sumner. Summarize Hall's legacy at Clark University? - Answer- Under his leadership, psychology dominated Clark, and Clark was a strong competitor with Harvard for top students and faculty Hall invited Freud to Clark's 20th anniversary because he was interested in his theory as well as Wundt's (who couldn't go). This visit to Clark did much to further the acceptance of his theory throughout the world Briefly describe the life and work of John Dewey ()? - Answer- A key person in the development of functionalism. Some mark the formal beginning of the school of functionalism with the 1896 publication of Dewey's article "The Reflex Arc Concept in Psychology." Believed dividing reflexes into sensory processes, brain processes, and motor responses for analysis is artificial and they are all one coordinated system. Was a pragmatist and believed in progressive education (learning by doing) Briefly describe the life and work of James Rowland Angell ()? - Answer- As president of the American Psychological Association and as chairman of the psychology department at the University of Chicago for 25 years, did much to promote functionalism. He was interested in mental operations, believing that mental processes mediate between the needs of the organism and the environment and that the mind and body cant't be separated Briefly describe the life and work of Harvey Carr ()? - Answer- An early functionalistic psychologist at the University of Chicago who developed the concept of an adaptive act (motive stimulates a behaviour, environmental setting affects it, and the response satisfies a motive) Describe the work of James McKeen Cattell () in applied psychology? - Answer- Represented functionalistic psychology at Columbia University. He did much to promote applied psychology. believed that ideas and methods should always be evaluated in terms of their usefulness; "All our systems of education, our churches, our legal systems, our governments and the rest are applied psychology" Describe the life and work of Robert Sessions Woodworth ()? - Answer- An influential functionalist at Columbia University who emphasized the role of motivation in behavior, eclecticism, and dynamic psychology (school of thought that stresses the internal variable that motivate organisms to act. Chose the symbols S-O-R (stimulusorganism-response) to designate his theory in order to emphasize the importance of the organism. Describe the life and work of Edward Lee Thorndike ()? - Answer- Marks the transition between the schools of functionalism and behaviorism. Thorndike concluded from his objective animal research that learning occurs gradually, occurs independent of consciousness, and is the same for all mammals. His final theory of learning was that practice alone has no effect on an association (neural bond) and that positive consequences strengthen an association but negative consequences do not weaken it. EMAIL ME: For help with report, Assignment, Essay and thesis writing What was animal research like pre-Thorndike ()? - Answer- Their observations riddled with anecdotes attributing human thought processes. Believed in Morgan's Canon (no animal action should be explained on a higher level if it can be explained on a lower level). Washburn's work used controlled conditions to infer mental processes. What was Edward Lee Thorndike's () puzzle box? - Answer- A chamber used to study animals with which they found learning occurs gradually without the involvement of mental processes which applies to all mammals What was Edward Lee Thorndike's () theory of connectionism? - AnswerStates how the strength of neural bonds (connections between stimuli and response) varies with experience What was Edward Lee Thorndike's () law of exercise? - Answer- States that the strength of an association varies with the frequency of it's occurrence What was Edward Lee Thorndike's () law of effect? - Answer- States that if an association is followed by a positive experience, it is strengthened Describe the life and work of James Mark Baldwin ()? - Answer- Founded several psychology programs, including the first in Canada. Did important early work in social psychology, cognitive development, and linking psychology with evolution. He served as APA president. What happened to functionalism as a movement within psychology? - Answer- It lost it's distinctiveness as a school because most of its major tenets were assimilated into all forms of psychology Briefly describe the life and work of Ivan M. Sechenov ()? - Answer- The father of Russian objective psychology. Sechenov sought to explain all human behaviour in terms of stimuli and physiological mechanisms without recourse to metaphysical speculation of any type. Sought to explain all psychic phenomena on the basis of materialism and associationism, strongly denying that thoughts cause behaviour, rather external stimulation causes all behaviour What was Ivan M. Sechenov's () concept of inhibition? - Answer- the reduction or cessation of activity caused by stimulation, such as when extinction causes a conditioned stimulus to inhibit a conditioned response which was the most important concept to Sechenov, leading him to believe that all human behaviour could be explained in terms of brain physiology. There can be a discrepancy between the intensity of a stimulus and the intensity of the response because sometimes a response is partially or completely inhabited and sometimes not so could explain all human behaviour as reflexive What was Ivan M. Sechenov's () beliefs regarding psychology as physiology? - Answer- The only valid approach to the study of psychology involved the objective methods of physiology, inspiring the study of inhibition to become central Briefly describe the life and work of Ivan Petrovitch Pavlov ()? - AnswerShared Sechenov's goal of creating a totally objective psychology. Pavlov focused his study on the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli that control behavior and on the physiological processes that they initiate. For Pavlov all human behavior is reflexive. Thought psychology should be studied with physiological techniques and then demonstrated how it could take place What was Ivan Petrovitch Pavlov's () study of the digestive process? - Answer- He sought more effective experimental procedures than studying dead animals so observed a patient with a gunshot wound to the stomach which lead him to developing the gastric fistula, a channel between dog's digestive organs to outside the body, allowing the animal to recover from surgery before studying digestion and the secretions What was Ivan Petrovitch Pavlov's () study of the conditioned reflex? - Answer- During his GI studies, he became aware that meat powder caused stomach secretions as well as objects or events associated with the meat powder called the conditioned reflex which can be explained by associative principles of contiguity and frequency What did Ivan Petrovitch Pavlov () establish as the steps of forming a conditioned reflex? - Answer- (1) food (unconditioned stimulus) - salivation (unconditioned response) (2) footsteps (neutral stimulus) + food (unconditioned stimulus) - salivation (conditioned response (3) footsteps (conditioned stimulus) - salivation (CR) What did Ivan Petrovitch Pavlov () find about the cortical mosaic of the brain? - Answer- The pattern of excitation and inhibition that determines how an organism will reposed to its environment at any given time. Excitation is brain activity that leads to over behaviour of some type and inhibition is the reduction or cessation of activity caused by stimulation What did Ivan Petrovitch Pavlov () find about experimental neurosis? - Answer- When two stimuli become indistinguishable, the excitatory and inhibitory tendencies will conflict and the animal's behaviour will break down. He found that abnormal behaviour could be produced in the laboratory by producing conflicting tendencies was the fact that the "neurotic" behaviour took different forms in different animals What was Ivan Petrovitch Pavlov () view of psychology? - Answer- He had a low opinion because of introspection and thought that Thorndike was treated like God Briefly describe the life and work of Vladimir M. Bechterev ()? - Answer- Like Pavlov, looked upon all human behavior as reflexive. However, Bechterev studied skeletal reflexes rather than the glandular reflexes that Pavlov studied. He founded the Bechterev Institute for brain research in 1907 & wrote 600 articles and books in biology, psychology, and philosophy What was Vladimir M. Bechterev's () concept of reflexology ? - Answer- The term used to describe his approach to studying humans. Because he emphasized the study of the relationship between environmental events and overt behavior, he can be considered one of the earliest behaviorists, if not the earliest. What was Vladimir M. Bechterev's () conflict with Pavlov? - Answer- They both studied conditioned reflexes at the same time which Becheterv called an association reflex. B thought P's research had major flaws and were rivals. B's concentration on the overt behaviour of organisms was more relevant to US behaviourism than Pavolv's secretions but P became better known in the US following Yerkes review of his work Describe the work of Alexander Luria ()? - Answer- Russian psychologist noted for many diverse contributions, including conflict, traumatic brain injury, and memory. He developed a theory of cortical function that divided the brain in 3 major blocks and accounted for neurological processes essential for attention through action and the Luria-Nebraska neurological assessment. Describe the work of Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky ()? - Answer- Eclectic Russian psychologist best known for his work with child cognitive development and higher mental processes such as thought and language. He included studies of child and educational psychology that are often still covered in modern texts, as well as work on play, intelligence, memory, perception, learning, and cultural differences. Describe the life and work of John B. Watson ()? - Answer- The founder of behaviorism who established psychology's goal as the prediction and control of behavior. In his final position, he denied the existence of mental events and concluded that instincts play no role in human behavior. On the mind-body problem, Watson finally became a physical monist, believing that thought is nothing but implicit muscle movement. What are some of the highlights of John B. Watson's () university years? - Answer- Undergrad: Furman College at 15 Graduate level: earned masters at 21 at the University of Chicago where he studied under empiricist Moore, philosopher Dewey, functionalist James Angell, & physiologist Jacques Loeb. Studied the development and learning of white rats, finding they use kinaesthetic sensations to solve a maze Why was John B. Watson () initially discouraged from becoming pure behaviourist by his colleagues? - Answer- when he tried his ideas on those closest to him—for example, Angell and Yerkes—they discouraged him because they both believed that the study of consciousness still had an important place in psychology What was John B. Watson's () objective psychology? - Answer- Russian position that was compatible with behaviourism which made conditioning the cornerstone of his stimulus-response psychology What was John B. Watson's () views on the goals of psychology? - Answer- It had the goal to predict and control behaviour by determining how it is related to environmental events What were John B. Watson's () 4 types of behaviour? - Answer- 1) explicit learned behaviour (ex., baseball) 2) implicit learned behaviour (ex., fears) 3) explicit unlearned behaviour (ex., grasping) 4) implicit unlearned behaviour (ex., gland secretion) What were John B. Watson's () 4 methods for studying behaviour? - Answer1) observation 2) conditioned-reflex method 3) testing (taking behaviour samples)