leadership education

Educational Reform, Standards, and School Leadership Louis Volante Education reform is not a new phenomenon. Every society, from the early classical periodtothecurrentmodernera, hasdebatedtheimportanceofdifferenttypesofcontentsandexperiencesthatleadtoaned ucatedandwell-adjustedchild. Itisimpossible to do justice to this wide range of human history within this book. This introductory chapter merely attempts to capture some of the most salient changes that have influenced educational reform since the introduction of compulsory schooling, particularly as they relate to the genesis of educational standards and its corresponding influence on school leadership. Although scholars may disagree, the general consensus is that the Aztecs (1400 – 1600 AD) had one of the first compulsory education systems for all children regardless of gender or class. Girls were primarily taught how to cook and care for a family, but they were also taught crafts and how to economically manage a family. Boys learned trades, fighting and leadership skills, and were generally the recipients of a wider education up to the age of 16 years. Not surprisingly, there was differentiation within the Aztec system where the children of nobles were educated as priests, doctors, teachers, and leaders of society. Other children were taught about Aztec culture/religion and learned trades and skills. Interestingly, there was some freedom to choose one’s education based on a child’s promise in a particular field; however, much debate still surrounds the degree of “choice” in this system. Across theAtlantic, the reformation in Scotland led to the first national system of education for all children—not just the children of noblemen—by the early sixteenth century. Prior to this period, Scotland, like other parts of medieval Europe, followed the Roman Catholic Church and its organization of schooling. In addition to a focus on church teachings, core curriculum also included grammar, astronomy, rhetoric, logic, mathematics, philosophy, and Latin—but only for boys that had the aptitude to follow a demanding course of study. Some of these students would continue their education in a university. The University of Bologna is widely recognized as the first European university founded in 1088 AD. L. Volante () Faculty of Education, Brock University, King Street East 1842, Hamilton, ON L8K 1V7, Canada e-mail: L. Volante (ed.), School Leadership in the Context of Standards-Based Reform, 3 Studies in Educational Leadership 16 , DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-4095-2_1, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012 4 L. Volante Similar reforms followed across much of Western Europe over the next two centuries. The Prussian model was particularly influential after the French Revolution. Thissystemrequiredallchildrenbetweentheagesof5and13yearstoattendschools. Children were taught a national curriculum consisting of reading, writing, and arithmetic, as well as ethics, discipline, and obedience. Interestingly, the Prussian system also included specific training and certification for teachers and testing for all students that was used primarily to determine suitability for job training. Thus, the first widely recognized testing framework tied to standards can be traced to the early modern era in Western Europe. Although an analysis of this model is multifaceted, one measure of success for this system is that it boasted an average literacy level of approximately 85% by the later part of the eighteenth century (Becker et al. 2010). ThePrussianmodelwasquicklyadoptedacrossmuchofEuropeandwasemulated in other countries such as the United States and Japan. Eventually, the adoption of standardstiedtopolicyexpectationsandthemonitoringofstudentassessmentresults would become known as standards-based reform. This loose coupling of standards, policy, and assessment monitoring often emerged in response to dynamic cultural, economic, and political forces, an issue that is discussed in greater detail in Part 2 of this book. Modern Assessment Systems The development and implementation of accountability systems has, arguably, been the most powerful trend in educational policy in the last 20 years (Barber 2004). The setting of academic standards for what student should know and be able to do can be traced to Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher’s British government during the 1980s. A national curriculum was adopted in 1988 that outlined core competencies that students should master in areas such as reading, writing, and arithmetic. Through Standard Achievement Tests (SATs), students’ and schools’ achievement results could be compared. Naturally, teachers and school administrators would also be judged for the performance of their students. The underlying message conveyed to parents was that they should be relatively satisfied with schools that improve their test performance from year to year and begin to question the quality of instruction to those that have poor performance. Collectively, the institution of curriculum requirements and standardized tests are policies often associated with both neoconservative and neoliberal ideologies that adopt market logic to the realm of social institutions such as schools (Hursh 2005). This type of educational reform model and corresponding zeitgeist spread very quickly to other parts of the world including the rest of the United Kingdom, Europe, NorthAmerica,Australasia, as well as parts ofAsia. I offer a brief survey of some of the more salient developments in assessment systems across various industrialized nations. In Part 2 of this book, descriptions of 1 Educational Reform, Standards, and School Leadership 5 national education and accountability frameworks are discussed in greater detail by various international scholars, particularly with the aim of highlighting the impact of particular policy contexts on the development of standards and school leadership practices. The following summaries are meant to provide the reader with a general understanding of how standards are assessed in parts of Europe, North America, Australasia, and Asia. In some cases, standards are assessed in relation to national/regional external tests while in others schools rely on internal assessment methods to reach judgments of educational quality. The reader should take note of the diversity in assessment systems since different models place unique demands and expectations on school leaders, an issue that is discussed in greater detail by the various international contributors to this book. United Kingdom InEngland, thetrendhashistoricallybeentowardtotalaccountabilityintheeducation system since the late 1980s (Harlen 2007; Whetton et al. 2000). England measured progress against national standards when students reach the ages of 11, 14, and 16 years. League tables that summarize the performance of schools are published by local and national newspapers, attracting a considerable amount of political and public attention. This testing and accountability framework has undergone significant revisions in recent years. For example, England’s national tests for 14-year-old students were dissolved and replaced by a system of assessment by teachers. This decision was announced by the Children’s Secretary Edward Balls in the English parliament in October, 2008. The Children’s Secretary was quick to point out that this decision is not a “U-turn” and will not affect the tests taken by 11-year-olds which will continue to be used for the accountability system. Other parts of the United Kingdom have also seen significant changes to their assessment and accountability frameworks. For example, Scotland in 2003, later followed by Wales in 2007, abolished national testing for 5–14-year-olds and replaced them with teacher assessments.At that time, the Scottish Education Minister, Peter Peacock said, the change was precipitated by the desire to create a “seamless” curriculum with an emphasis on teaching rather than testing. Collectively, these changes suggest a fundamental shift in the assessment of policy and practice that are taking root in the United Kingdom. The implications of these changes for school leaders is profound and an ongoing area for research and focused study. Europe 6 L. Volante This brief section describes some of the diversity in assessment systems across continental Europe. This is no small task given the large number of countries that occupy this continent. Fortunately, an important European organization named Eurydice provides information on and analyses European education systems and policies. Currently there are 31 countries that fall within the Eurydice Network. It is worth noting that the previously discussed United Kingdom (England, Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland) is also a member of this network. Overall, testing has become a common practice across Europe since the early 1990s. Assessment methods may be internal or external, formative or summative, and assigned various levels of importance (Eurydice 2009). Of course, this book is primarily concerned with assessment methods that are typically used to assess progress against preset standards. Countries such as Sweden, France, Ireland, Hungary, and the previously discussed United Kingdom have a long history of national testing to monitor and evaluate the quality of public education, particularly in relation to standards. In the present context, Eurydice reports that most European countries have introduced and implemented national testing in relation to education standards. In some cases, the legal basis for the inclusion of standards and standardized tests has been established through legislative acts. While the previous discussion suggests that national testing continues unabated in Europe, it is also important to note that some countries have taken steps to limit and/or abolish external summative assessments. For example, in four countries—Belgium (Dutch-speaking community), Czech Republic, Greece, and Liechtenstein—schools carry out assessments internally and rely on formative and summative measures on a continuous basis. Nevertheless, the Eurydice Network is quick to point out that despite the variations in approaches to pupil assessment the process of assessing learning outcomes is an instrumental factor in improving the quality of education in all European nations.