TOK Natural Science
Science - ANSrefers to a system of acquiring knowledge, this system uses observation and
experimentation to describe and explain natural phenomena
Limitations of natural science - ANSit does not have a monopoly on truth and there may be
equally valid ways of making sense of the world
science is... - ANSa stamp of approval or quality, but we should be cautious about some of the
more extravagant claims that are made on science's behalf
Natural science and certainty - ANSwe might wonder how far the natural sciences really do give
us certainty since scientific beliefs change over time
Pseudo-science - ANSbody of knowledge or practice that is claimed to be scientific, but does
not adhere to the scientific method and lacks supporting evidence
Pseudo - ANSfalse or pretending
Scientia - ANSknowledge
Karl Popper criterion of falsiability - ANSsomething is falsiable if it is possible to conceive of an
observation or an argument which negates the statement in question (ex: god created the
universe)
Scientific hypotheses are testable... - ANSpseudo-scientific ones are not
What distinguishes a pseudo-science from a science? - ANSit claims the status of a science
while lacking its substance
How do pseudo sciences avoid being tested? - ANSvagueness: if a statement is sufficiently
vague, it will be impossible to verify of falsify it. ad hoc exceptions: (swan examples)
What does a good scientific hypothesis have? - ANSgeneral in nature, does not keep making
exceptions every time it meets counter-examples, stated clearly, makes precise predictions
Science as a system of acquiring knowledge - ANSIdeals (reliability, precision, objectivity),
Method (problem, hypothesis, observations...) Objectives (describe, explain, understand)
Induction - ANSthe process of deriving general laws from a number of particular instances. the
degree of certainty is tied with the number of observations that would confirm it and additional
info that would make the conclusion stronger.
, Steps of the Scientific Method - ANSObservation, hypothesis, experiment, law, theory
Features a good experiment should have - ANSControllability (helps you isolate the cause of
the phenomenon you see investigating), measureability (you can measure the relevant
variables, adds precision and objectivity to your experiment), repeatability (it can be repeated by
other people to confirm your results, this ensures your results have some kind of objectivity)
If your experimental results confirm your hypothesis, - ANSthen you may have discovered a
scientific law
A good theory - ANSexplains why laws are the way they are and provides a focus for further
research
The problems with the scientific method - ANS1)Problems with observation, 2.)Testing
hypothesis, 3.)Laws: the problem with induction, 4.) Falsification
Problems with observation (intro) - ANSscience is based on observation, but observations are
not as straightforward as they seem
Problems of observation of: - ANS(REESO) Relevance (we tend to choose what we think is
relevant to not flood with observations), Expectations (influence what we see), Expert seeing
(scientific equipment is hard to learn how to handle), Selective Nature of Perception (means that
it is always possible that we have overlooked a factor that turns out to be relevant), Observer
effect (act of observation will affect what is being observed)
Complications of testing hypothesis - ANSConfirmation bias, background assumptions, many
different hypotheses are consistent with a given set of data
Background assumptions - ANSwhenever we test a hypothesis, we make various background
assumptions, any one of which could turn out to be false
Confirmation bias - ANSpeople tend to look for evidence that confirms their beliefs and overlook
evidence that goes against them. One common form of confirmation bias for a scientist is to
dismiss results they don't expect as "experimental error"
Many different hypotheses are consistent with a given set of data - ANSsince it is possible to
come up with many different hypotheses that are consistent with a given set of observations, it
is in practice impossible to prove that any particular hypothesis is true
The principle of simplicity - ANSgiven two competing theories which make exactly the same
predictions the simpler theory is to be preferred. this principle reflects a deep belief in the
orderliness and comprehensibility of nature, but no further justification can be given for it.
Science - ANSrefers to a system of acquiring knowledge, this system uses observation and
experimentation to describe and explain natural phenomena
Limitations of natural science - ANSit does not have a monopoly on truth and there may be
equally valid ways of making sense of the world
science is... - ANSa stamp of approval or quality, but we should be cautious about some of the
more extravagant claims that are made on science's behalf
Natural science and certainty - ANSwe might wonder how far the natural sciences really do give
us certainty since scientific beliefs change over time
Pseudo-science - ANSbody of knowledge or practice that is claimed to be scientific, but does
not adhere to the scientific method and lacks supporting evidence
Pseudo - ANSfalse or pretending
Scientia - ANSknowledge
Karl Popper criterion of falsiability - ANSsomething is falsiable if it is possible to conceive of an
observation or an argument which negates the statement in question (ex: god created the
universe)
Scientific hypotheses are testable... - ANSpseudo-scientific ones are not
What distinguishes a pseudo-science from a science? - ANSit claims the status of a science
while lacking its substance
How do pseudo sciences avoid being tested? - ANSvagueness: if a statement is sufficiently
vague, it will be impossible to verify of falsify it. ad hoc exceptions: (swan examples)
What does a good scientific hypothesis have? - ANSgeneral in nature, does not keep making
exceptions every time it meets counter-examples, stated clearly, makes precise predictions
Science as a system of acquiring knowledge - ANSIdeals (reliability, precision, objectivity),
Method (problem, hypothesis, observations...) Objectives (describe, explain, understand)
Induction - ANSthe process of deriving general laws from a number of particular instances. the
degree of certainty is tied with the number of observations that would confirm it and additional
info that would make the conclusion stronger.
, Steps of the Scientific Method - ANSObservation, hypothesis, experiment, law, theory
Features a good experiment should have - ANSControllability (helps you isolate the cause of
the phenomenon you see investigating), measureability (you can measure the relevant
variables, adds precision and objectivity to your experiment), repeatability (it can be repeated by
other people to confirm your results, this ensures your results have some kind of objectivity)
If your experimental results confirm your hypothesis, - ANSthen you may have discovered a
scientific law
A good theory - ANSexplains why laws are the way they are and provides a focus for further
research
The problems with the scientific method - ANS1)Problems with observation, 2.)Testing
hypothesis, 3.)Laws: the problem with induction, 4.) Falsification
Problems with observation (intro) - ANSscience is based on observation, but observations are
not as straightforward as they seem
Problems of observation of: - ANS(REESO) Relevance (we tend to choose what we think is
relevant to not flood with observations), Expectations (influence what we see), Expert seeing
(scientific equipment is hard to learn how to handle), Selective Nature of Perception (means that
it is always possible that we have overlooked a factor that turns out to be relevant), Observer
effect (act of observation will affect what is being observed)
Complications of testing hypothesis - ANSConfirmation bias, background assumptions, many
different hypotheses are consistent with a given set of data
Background assumptions - ANSwhenever we test a hypothesis, we make various background
assumptions, any one of which could turn out to be false
Confirmation bias - ANSpeople tend to look for evidence that confirms their beliefs and overlook
evidence that goes against them. One common form of confirmation bias for a scientist is to
dismiss results they don't expect as "experimental error"
Many different hypotheses are consistent with a given set of data - ANSsince it is possible to
come up with many different hypotheses that are consistent with a given set of observations, it
is in practice impossible to prove that any particular hypothesis is true
The principle of simplicity - ANSgiven two competing theories which make exactly the same
predictions the simpler theory is to be preferred. this principle reflects a deep belief in the
orderliness and comprehensibility of nature, but no further justification can be given for it.
