ONS/ONCC CHEMOTHERAPY IMMUNOTHERAPY 2024
UPDATE CERTIFICATE COMPLETE QUESTIONS AND
ANSWERS GRADE A+
Foundations to Set the Stage
What is the cell cycle
The cell cycle is the ordered series of processes of DNA replication and mitosis or cell
division
What are the two phases of the cell cycle
interphase and mitotic phase
During interphase:
A typical cell spends most of its life in interphase, it is the metabolic phase where the
cell obtains nutrients and metabolizes them, grows and replicates its DNA in preparation
of mitosis. It has the following three steps:
1: First growth phase (G1 or first gap)
2: Synthesis phase (S phase)
3:Second growth phase ( G2 or second gap)
First Growth Phase (G1 or first gap)
-cells increase in size
-reproduce RNA
-"quality assurance" test that the cell will be ready to synthesis DNA
-Length of time is variable, can be from hours to days
Synthesis Phase (S phase)
-DNA replicates
-Results in the formation of identical pairs of DNA (chromatids) attached to a
centromere
-lasts 10-20 hours
Second Growth Phase ( G2 or second gap)
-RNA and protein Synthesis
- last 2-10 hours
Mitotic Phase (M phase)
,-Replicated chromosomes are aligned, separated, and move into 2 new, identical
daughter cells
-takes about 30-60 minutes
How many steps in the Mitotic Phase
4 steps in the mitotic phase
- Prophase
- Anaphase
- Metaphase
-Telophase
Cytokenesis ( C phase)
division of cytoplasm and organelles
Major points of cell regulation are entry and exit from
-G1 checkpoint
-S Phase
-G2 checkpoint
-M phase
Restriction Point
-The transition from the resting phase into an actively dividing phase (G0-G1) is a point
where cellular transformation can occur
-During this time, cells pass through a transition phase known as a restriction point
-Extracellular growth factors trigger reentry into G1, and GF are required to send the
cells past the restriction point, or the point of no return
G0 Phase (resting phase)
-After mitosis, cells may enter back into the G1 phase or go into a resting phase, known
as G0
-Most cells in the human body reside in G0
-Exceptions to this are those that are (Resting in G0 phase)
-Exceptions to this are those that are metabollically active, such as
-granulocytes
-and the epithelium of the GI tract
Cell Cycling Time
Amount of time from mitosis to mitosis
Check points in the Cell Cycle: Keeping it All Under Control
-The cell cycle is carefully controlled through a series of checkpoints
-Variation in duplication or distribution of chromosomes during cell division can alter the
,genetic information passed on to daughter cells, leading to cellular dysfunction and
disease, such as cancer
-These checkpoints monitor for DNA integrity and control progression through mitosis
Progression through the cell cycle is controlled through two proteins:
1. cyclines (D, E, A, B)
2. Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs)
-Cyclin-CDK complex allows the cell to progress through each phase of the cell cycle
Locations of proteins Cyclins (D, E, A, B) and CDKs
-(G0-G1) : Cyclin D and CDK 4/6
-Early S: Cyclin E and CDK 1/2
-Late S: Cyclin A and CDK 1/2
-G2: CDK 1/2 and cyclin A
-Before M: CDK 1 and Cyclin B
Inhibitory proteins
-prevent progression of the cycle when DNA damage is detected
-An example of an inhibitory protein is p53 (AKA TP53), P21, Retinoblastoma protein
(Rb)
DNA Damage Checkpoints
-If DNA damage is present, cells are programmed to stop dividing or undergo apoptosis
(programmed cell death)
-The retinoblastoma protein (Rb), p53, and p21 are some of the most well-understood
inhibitory proteins (IP)
Inhibitory proteins p53
-Levels of this IP regulate several important target genes
-Will increase when DNA damage is present
-Protects against inappropriate signal proliferation
-sometimes called the "suicide gene"
M Phase Checkpoints
When the cells prepare to divide, the chromosomes line up in the mitotic spindle.
If the chromosomes are not properly aligned, division is not allowed to continue
What is hematopoiesis?
the formation of blood cells
Where are cell of the Immune system created
, Cells of the immune system are created in the bone marrow from what is known as
pluripotent stem cells ( these are cells that can differentiate into any cells type except
embryonic tissue)
What are the 2 types of undifferentiated stem cells
- Myeloid
- Lymphoid
Myeolid Precursor Cells
Mature into:
-RBCS
-Plts
-WBCs (Granulocytes)
Lymphoid Precursor Cells
Mature into:
-Specialized WBCs called lymphocytes (Agranulocytes)
What is the differences between Agranulocyte and Granulocytes
Granulocytes have cytoplasmic granules and Granulocytes lack that
Types of Granulocytes (Myeloid Lineage)
-Basophils
- Eosinophils
-Neutrophils
Types of Agranulocytes ( Lymphoid Lineage)
- T Lymphocytes
- B Lymphocytes
- Monocytes
Lines of Defense: The Immune System's Response to Attack
Consists of 2 types of immunity:
1: Innate
2: Adaptive
Innate Immunity
-First line of defense against a pathogen
-Does not retain memory of the entity
-Involves the following:
(skin, mucous membranes, and normal flora of the skin and gut)
Functions of:
1. Phagocytes
2. Natural Killer Cells
3. Granulocytes
4. Macrophages
UPDATE CERTIFICATE COMPLETE QUESTIONS AND
ANSWERS GRADE A+
Foundations to Set the Stage
What is the cell cycle
The cell cycle is the ordered series of processes of DNA replication and mitosis or cell
division
What are the two phases of the cell cycle
interphase and mitotic phase
During interphase:
A typical cell spends most of its life in interphase, it is the metabolic phase where the
cell obtains nutrients and metabolizes them, grows and replicates its DNA in preparation
of mitosis. It has the following three steps:
1: First growth phase (G1 or first gap)
2: Synthesis phase (S phase)
3:Second growth phase ( G2 or second gap)
First Growth Phase (G1 or first gap)
-cells increase in size
-reproduce RNA
-"quality assurance" test that the cell will be ready to synthesis DNA
-Length of time is variable, can be from hours to days
Synthesis Phase (S phase)
-DNA replicates
-Results in the formation of identical pairs of DNA (chromatids) attached to a
centromere
-lasts 10-20 hours
Second Growth Phase ( G2 or second gap)
-RNA and protein Synthesis
- last 2-10 hours
Mitotic Phase (M phase)
,-Replicated chromosomes are aligned, separated, and move into 2 new, identical
daughter cells
-takes about 30-60 minutes
How many steps in the Mitotic Phase
4 steps in the mitotic phase
- Prophase
- Anaphase
- Metaphase
-Telophase
Cytokenesis ( C phase)
division of cytoplasm and organelles
Major points of cell regulation are entry and exit from
-G1 checkpoint
-S Phase
-G2 checkpoint
-M phase
Restriction Point
-The transition from the resting phase into an actively dividing phase (G0-G1) is a point
where cellular transformation can occur
-During this time, cells pass through a transition phase known as a restriction point
-Extracellular growth factors trigger reentry into G1, and GF are required to send the
cells past the restriction point, or the point of no return
G0 Phase (resting phase)
-After mitosis, cells may enter back into the G1 phase or go into a resting phase, known
as G0
-Most cells in the human body reside in G0
-Exceptions to this are those that are (Resting in G0 phase)
-Exceptions to this are those that are metabollically active, such as
-granulocytes
-and the epithelium of the GI tract
Cell Cycling Time
Amount of time from mitosis to mitosis
Check points in the Cell Cycle: Keeping it All Under Control
-The cell cycle is carefully controlled through a series of checkpoints
-Variation in duplication or distribution of chromosomes during cell division can alter the
,genetic information passed on to daughter cells, leading to cellular dysfunction and
disease, such as cancer
-These checkpoints monitor for DNA integrity and control progression through mitosis
Progression through the cell cycle is controlled through two proteins:
1. cyclines (D, E, A, B)
2. Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs)
-Cyclin-CDK complex allows the cell to progress through each phase of the cell cycle
Locations of proteins Cyclins (D, E, A, B) and CDKs
-(G0-G1) : Cyclin D and CDK 4/6
-Early S: Cyclin E and CDK 1/2
-Late S: Cyclin A and CDK 1/2
-G2: CDK 1/2 and cyclin A
-Before M: CDK 1 and Cyclin B
Inhibitory proteins
-prevent progression of the cycle when DNA damage is detected
-An example of an inhibitory protein is p53 (AKA TP53), P21, Retinoblastoma protein
(Rb)
DNA Damage Checkpoints
-If DNA damage is present, cells are programmed to stop dividing or undergo apoptosis
(programmed cell death)
-The retinoblastoma protein (Rb), p53, and p21 are some of the most well-understood
inhibitory proteins (IP)
Inhibitory proteins p53
-Levels of this IP regulate several important target genes
-Will increase when DNA damage is present
-Protects against inappropriate signal proliferation
-sometimes called the "suicide gene"
M Phase Checkpoints
When the cells prepare to divide, the chromosomes line up in the mitotic spindle.
If the chromosomes are not properly aligned, division is not allowed to continue
What is hematopoiesis?
the formation of blood cells
Where are cell of the Immune system created
, Cells of the immune system are created in the bone marrow from what is known as
pluripotent stem cells ( these are cells that can differentiate into any cells type except
embryonic tissue)
What are the 2 types of undifferentiated stem cells
- Myeloid
- Lymphoid
Myeolid Precursor Cells
Mature into:
-RBCS
-Plts
-WBCs (Granulocytes)
Lymphoid Precursor Cells
Mature into:
-Specialized WBCs called lymphocytes (Agranulocytes)
What is the differences between Agranulocyte and Granulocytes
Granulocytes have cytoplasmic granules and Granulocytes lack that
Types of Granulocytes (Myeloid Lineage)
-Basophils
- Eosinophils
-Neutrophils
Types of Agranulocytes ( Lymphoid Lineage)
- T Lymphocytes
- B Lymphocytes
- Monocytes
Lines of Defense: The Immune System's Response to Attack
Consists of 2 types of immunity:
1: Innate
2: Adaptive
Innate Immunity
-First line of defense against a pathogen
-Does not retain memory of the entity
-Involves the following:
(skin, mucous membranes, and normal flora of the skin and gut)
Functions of:
1. Phagocytes
2. Natural Killer Cells
3. Granulocytes
4. Macrophages
