Plato..................................................................................................................... 0
Aristotle................................................................................................................3
Hobbes................................................................................................................. 5
Locke................................................................................................................... 6
Rousseau.............................................................................................................8
Objection to Rawls from Nozick..........................................................................14
Liberalism........................................................................................................... 15
Negative liberty vs Positive liberty...........................................................................16
Justice.................................................................................................................... 16
Socialism............................................................................................................ 16
Marx and Engels................................................................................................18
John Stuart Mill.......................................................................................................21
Strict Egalitarianism............................................................................................24
Nozick’s Libertarian Justice................................................................................25
Hayek................................................................................................................. 26
Communitarianism.............................................................................................27
Walzer................................................................................................................ 28
Conservatism.......................................................................................................... 30
Confucianism.....................................................................................................32
Plato
● Plato rejected the Athenian ‘democracy’ (called that, even though women and slaves
were forbidden the vote) as the ideal model of a ‘just society’
, 1
● Because ordinary citizens were too easily swayed by appeals to irrational emotions
and illogical arguments
○ Ruled by appetite
○ Influenced by his experience with Socrates: where an irrational group of
citizens condemned him to death
● Concluded that the ideal society must be a type of intellectual aristocracy
○ Society governed by a limited number of individuals who are considered to be
uniquely qualified because of their intellectual abilities
○ ‘Philosopher-kings’
○ People who dedicated themselves to authentic wisdom through enlightened
education and hard work
■ Why he created the Academy for philosophical study
● Did not believe that people were created with equal abilities
○ Workers: craftspeople, farmers, artisans, shopkeepers
○ Guardians: soldiers, police, firefighters, etc
○ Philosopher-kings
■ Corresponding to appetite, spirit and reason
■ Reason has to rule (as shown in the Chariot analogy)
● A just state is one in which all perform their respective functions - bringing harmony
● In a virtuous person, all three elements of the soul function together in a smoothly
integrated and productive way
○ Same should be in a just society
● Justice exists in the state and the individual when all the elements perform their
distinctive function and work together as a smoothly articulated and balanced
whole
● Injustice occurs when the parts of the state or individual fail to perform the
functions they were designed or fail to work with others harmoniously
● Plato’s theory is both structured and hierarchical
○ Expected to remain in social classes and work toward the good of the society,
can move within social class
○ Entails subsuming some personal interests
● Anything that harms society would threaten the happiness of citizens since
society and citizens have such a close reciprocal relationship
● Important:
○ Plato’s hierarchy is not based on elitist or aristocratic principles
○ Hierarchy of wisdom and enlightenment
○ All people should strive to achieve a rationally based understanding of the
essence of goodness and truth
○ Intellectual merit should not exclude anyone based on gender, race or
social class
■ Practical application implies something different
Conclusion:
● Individuals need to conform to intrinsic natures and fulfill unique potentials in order
to lead virtuous lives and attain happiness
, 2
● This is only possible within the context of a just, rationally ordered state
● Natural order: people of wisdom to lead, people of courage to protect and people of
temperance to provide basic nourishing needs of community
● Based on concept of cooperation, state in which all people fulfill their functions
● General interests
Why is this just according to Plato? (the Republic excerpt pg. 508)
● ‘Justice is doing your own task and not meddling with others’
● Justice is to do one’s own job
● Justice is keeping this balance/harmony
● What should different people do? No matter the person,
● We want the city to be excellent, and this would guarantee this
● Isn’t it the case that judges, for example, always want to have what is theirs? Yes
this is the aim and justice.
● So therefore, keeping possession of your own task is justice.
● People switching places is disastrous:
○ A worker trying to be a politician would turn to shit
● So, when each group does its own job there is justice
○ Allows for inequalities
See, Plato didn’t care about what you want to do - he just cared about what you’re meant to
do. All the citizens know that they are being forced into staying in these positions for the
common good, but they don’t know what the common good is.
Plato’s critique of democracy
● Plato actually thought that most people are ruled by desire, regardless of their soul
element. People are inherently selfish, making sure that their needs are satisfied
first. When people rule, clashes and wars are inevitable. Peace, laws, and etc will be
wanted because of this. But this needs to be reinforced by some people- they’re
holding out for a hero till the end of the night.
● This leader will be a demagogue, someone who is popular, ruling in the interest of
the people (not the common good).
● The difference between the interest of the people and the interest in the common
good:
○ The interest of the people is happiness, and
○ the interest of the common good has to do with Justice and the people
as a whole.
● These demagogues are not philosophers, they are just trying to please people, they
aren’t looking.
● Therefore, democracy is not much better than tyranny. It will never lead to the
common good, it’s impractical, it’s a popularity contest.
● It takes care of the majority, not of the minorities and the common good
, 3
Aristotle
● Society is the natural state of humanity
● “Man is a political creature” by nature- not that the state is the result of individuals
coming together but the opposite
○ Existing in communities is our natural state
○ We can exist as fully formed individuals only through our social relationships
with others
● “Political animals”- social identities
Common good
● The conviction that the state is prior to the individual means that the interests of the
individual are secondary to the communal interests, in the same way that the whole
body takes precedence over individual parts
● Must cooperate in order to achieve virtue for themselves and their community
○ “Justice is the bond of men in states, for the administration of justice… is
the principle of order in political society”
● Similar to plato
○ Different people have different potentials entelechy
■ Slaves are also fulfilling their distinctive purposes, nor are women
equal to men
■ Their ideas of justice allow for inequalities
Conclusion & legacy
● Affirmed the idea that members of a category must be treated as equals, however the
difference today is that all people are equal they therefore deserve equal consideration
● Aristotle articulated distributive justice
○ Wealth and goods should be fairly distributed
● Aristotle:
○ Poor and disadvantaged require special protection to ensure that their basic
needs are taken care of
Democracy
● He agreed with Plato that democracy does not provide the most just form of
government, equates to mob rule which is not good enough
Poses objection to Plato (can be used as a clear counter argument)
● Whereas Plato thought that we should all stay in our place and do our tasks, he also
thought that the attachment to things (family, property, etc.) could make us weaker
○ Aristotle, on the other hand, thought these attachments were natural
● That in fact having these things contribute to our happiness
● So he didn't think that dedicating oneself to one of would fulfill one as a human being
● He thought that to fulfill oneself one has to fulfill multiple needs
Aristotle................................................................................................................3
Hobbes................................................................................................................. 5
Locke................................................................................................................... 6
Rousseau.............................................................................................................8
Objection to Rawls from Nozick..........................................................................14
Liberalism........................................................................................................... 15
Negative liberty vs Positive liberty...........................................................................16
Justice.................................................................................................................... 16
Socialism............................................................................................................ 16
Marx and Engels................................................................................................18
John Stuart Mill.......................................................................................................21
Strict Egalitarianism............................................................................................24
Nozick’s Libertarian Justice................................................................................25
Hayek................................................................................................................. 26
Communitarianism.............................................................................................27
Walzer................................................................................................................ 28
Conservatism.......................................................................................................... 30
Confucianism.....................................................................................................32
Plato
● Plato rejected the Athenian ‘democracy’ (called that, even though women and slaves
were forbidden the vote) as the ideal model of a ‘just society’
, 1
● Because ordinary citizens were too easily swayed by appeals to irrational emotions
and illogical arguments
○ Ruled by appetite
○ Influenced by his experience with Socrates: where an irrational group of
citizens condemned him to death
● Concluded that the ideal society must be a type of intellectual aristocracy
○ Society governed by a limited number of individuals who are considered to be
uniquely qualified because of their intellectual abilities
○ ‘Philosopher-kings’
○ People who dedicated themselves to authentic wisdom through enlightened
education and hard work
■ Why he created the Academy for philosophical study
● Did not believe that people were created with equal abilities
○ Workers: craftspeople, farmers, artisans, shopkeepers
○ Guardians: soldiers, police, firefighters, etc
○ Philosopher-kings
■ Corresponding to appetite, spirit and reason
■ Reason has to rule (as shown in the Chariot analogy)
● A just state is one in which all perform their respective functions - bringing harmony
● In a virtuous person, all three elements of the soul function together in a smoothly
integrated and productive way
○ Same should be in a just society
● Justice exists in the state and the individual when all the elements perform their
distinctive function and work together as a smoothly articulated and balanced
whole
● Injustice occurs when the parts of the state or individual fail to perform the
functions they were designed or fail to work with others harmoniously
● Plato’s theory is both structured and hierarchical
○ Expected to remain in social classes and work toward the good of the society,
can move within social class
○ Entails subsuming some personal interests
● Anything that harms society would threaten the happiness of citizens since
society and citizens have such a close reciprocal relationship
● Important:
○ Plato’s hierarchy is not based on elitist or aristocratic principles
○ Hierarchy of wisdom and enlightenment
○ All people should strive to achieve a rationally based understanding of the
essence of goodness and truth
○ Intellectual merit should not exclude anyone based on gender, race or
social class
■ Practical application implies something different
Conclusion:
● Individuals need to conform to intrinsic natures and fulfill unique potentials in order
to lead virtuous lives and attain happiness
, 2
● This is only possible within the context of a just, rationally ordered state
● Natural order: people of wisdom to lead, people of courage to protect and people of
temperance to provide basic nourishing needs of community
● Based on concept of cooperation, state in which all people fulfill their functions
● General interests
Why is this just according to Plato? (the Republic excerpt pg. 508)
● ‘Justice is doing your own task and not meddling with others’
● Justice is to do one’s own job
● Justice is keeping this balance/harmony
● What should different people do? No matter the person,
● We want the city to be excellent, and this would guarantee this
● Isn’t it the case that judges, for example, always want to have what is theirs? Yes
this is the aim and justice.
● So therefore, keeping possession of your own task is justice.
● People switching places is disastrous:
○ A worker trying to be a politician would turn to shit
● So, when each group does its own job there is justice
○ Allows for inequalities
See, Plato didn’t care about what you want to do - he just cared about what you’re meant to
do. All the citizens know that they are being forced into staying in these positions for the
common good, but they don’t know what the common good is.
Plato’s critique of democracy
● Plato actually thought that most people are ruled by desire, regardless of their soul
element. People are inherently selfish, making sure that their needs are satisfied
first. When people rule, clashes and wars are inevitable. Peace, laws, and etc will be
wanted because of this. But this needs to be reinforced by some people- they’re
holding out for a hero till the end of the night.
● This leader will be a demagogue, someone who is popular, ruling in the interest of
the people (not the common good).
● The difference between the interest of the people and the interest in the common
good:
○ The interest of the people is happiness, and
○ the interest of the common good has to do with Justice and the people
as a whole.
● These demagogues are not philosophers, they are just trying to please people, they
aren’t looking.
● Therefore, democracy is not much better than tyranny. It will never lead to the
common good, it’s impractical, it’s a popularity contest.
● It takes care of the majority, not of the minorities and the common good
, 3
Aristotle
● Society is the natural state of humanity
● “Man is a political creature” by nature- not that the state is the result of individuals
coming together but the opposite
○ Existing in communities is our natural state
○ We can exist as fully formed individuals only through our social relationships
with others
● “Political animals”- social identities
Common good
● The conviction that the state is prior to the individual means that the interests of the
individual are secondary to the communal interests, in the same way that the whole
body takes precedence over individual parts
● Must cooperate in order to achieve virtue for themselves and their community
○ “Justice is the bond of men in states, for the administration of justice… is
the principle of order in political society”
● Similar to plato
○ Different people have different potentials entelechy
■ Slaves are also fulfilling their distinctive purposes, nor are women
equal to men
■ Their ideas of justice allow for inequalities
Conclusion & legacy
● Affirmed the idea that members of a category must be treated as equals, however the
difference today is that all people are equal they therefore deserve equal consideration
● Aristotle articulated distributive justice
○ Wealth and goods should be fairly distributed
● Aristotle:
○ Poor and disadvantaged require special protection to ensure that their basic
needs are taken care of
Democracy
● He agreed with Plato that democracy does not provide the most just form of
government, equates to mob rule which is not good enough
Poses objection to Plato (can be used as a clear counter argument)
● Whereas Plato thought that we should all stay in our place and do our tasks, he also
thought that the attachment to things (family, property, etc.) could make us weaker
○ Aristotle, on the other hand, thought these attachments were natural
● That in fact having these things contribute to our happiness
● So he didn't think that dedicating oneself to one of would fulfill one as a human being
● He thought that to fulfill oneself one has to fulfill multiple needs
