MODULE 5: LEARNING
Learning is any relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience or
practice. The relatively permanent” part of the definition refers to the fact that when people
learn anything, some part of their brain is physically changed to record what they’ve learned.
BASIC FORMS OF LEARNING:
Many psychologists believe that learning occurs in several basic forms: classical conditioning,
operant conditioning, and observational learning
.
Classical conditioning, is a form of learning in which two stimulus events become associated in
such a way that the occurrence of one event reliably predicts the occurrence of the other.
Classical conditioning is the basis for many learned fears, including stage fright, and also helps
explain how we acquire aversions to certain foods or beverages.
Operant conditioning,is a form of learning in which organisms learn associations between
behaviors and stimuli that precede them (antecedents) or follow them (consequences).
Psychologists often apply basic operant principles to promote certain behaviors, such as
recycling and occupational safety, and to discourage others, such as self-injury.
Observational learning, is a form of learning in which organisms learn by observing the
behaviors—and the consequences of the behaviors—of others around them.
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING:
Classical Conditioning: Is a basic form of learning in which one stimulus comes to serve as
a signal for the occurrence of a second stimulus. During classical conditioning, organisms
acquire information about the relations between various stimuli, not simple associations
between them.
In classical conditioning, a physical event—termed a stimulus—that initially does not elicit a
particular response gradually acquires the capacity to elicit that response as a result of repeated
pairing with a stimulus that can elicit a reaction. Classical conditioning became the subject of
careful study in the early twentieth century, when Ivan Pavlov, a Nobel Prize–winning
physiologist from Russia, identified it as an important behavioral process.
Stimulus: Is a physical event capable of affecting behavior.
Reflex: An involuntary response, one that is not under personal control or choice.
ELEMENTS OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING:
Pavlov did not actually set out to investigate classical conditioning. Rather, his research focused
on the process of digestion in dogs. During his investigations Pavlov noticed a curious fact the
dogs in his studies often began to salivate when they saw or smelled food but before they
actually tasted it. Some even salivated at the sight of the pan where their food was kept or at the
sight or sound of the person who usually brought it. This suggested to Pavlov that these stimuli
, had somehow become signals for the food itself: The dogs had learned that when the signals
were present, food would soon follow. Pavlov quickly recognized the potential importance of
this observation and shifted the focus of his research accordingly.
The procedures that he now developed were relatively simple. On conditioning trials, a neutral
stimulus that had previously been shown to have no effect on salivation—a bell, for
example—was presented. This was immediately followed by a second stimulus known to
produce a strong effect on salivation: dried meat powder placed directly into the dog’s mouth.
The meat powder was termed the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), because its ability to produce
salivation was automatic and did not depend on the dog’s having learned the response. Similarly,
the response of salivation to the meat powder was termed an unconditioned response (UCR); it
too did not depend on previous learning. The bell was termed a conditioned stimulus (CS),
because its ability to produce salivation depended on its being paired with the meat powder.
Finally, salivation in response to the bell was termed a conditioned response (CR). The basic
question was whether the sound of the bell would gradually elicit salivation in the dogs as a
result of its repeated pairing with the meat powder. In other words, would the bell elicit a
conditioned response when it was presented alone? The answer was clearly yes. After the bell
had been paired repeatedly with the meat powder, the dogs salivated upon hearing it, even when
the bell was not followed by the meat powder.
Pavlov thus identified 4 key elements of classical conditioning:
1. Unconditioned Stimulus :
The original, naturally occurring stimulus is called the unconditioned
stimulus (UCS). The term unconditioned means “unlearned.” This is the stimulus that ordinarily
leads to the involuntary response. In the case of Pavlov’s dogs the food is the unconditioned
stimulus.
2. Unconditioned Response:
The automatic and involuntary response to the unconditioned stimulus is called the
unconditioned response (UCR) for much the same reason.It is unlearned and occurs because of
genetic “wiring” in the nervous system. For example, in Pavlov’s experiment, the salivation to
the food is the UCR (unconditioned response).
3. Conditioned Stimulus:
Pavlov determined that almost any kind of stimulus could become associated with the
unconditioned stimulus (UCS) if it is paired with the UCS often enough. In his original study, the
sight of the food dish itself became a stimulus for salivation before the food was given to the
dogs. Every time they got food (to which they automatically salivated), they saw the dish. At this
point, the dish was a neutral stimulus (NS) because it had no effect on salivation. After being
paired with the food so many times, the dish came to produce a salivation response, although a
somewhat weaker one, as did the food itself. When a previously neutral stimulus, through
repeated pairing with the unconditioned stimulus, begins to cause the same kind of involuntary
response,
learning has occurred. The previously neutral stimulus can now be called a conditioned
stimulus (CS). (Conditioned means “learned,” and, as mentioned earlier, unconditioned means
“unlearned.”)
Learning is any relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience or
practice. The relatively permanent” part of the definition refers to the fact that when people
learn anything, some part of their brain is physically changed to record what they’ve learned.
BASIC FORMS OF LEARNING:
Many psychologists believe that learning occurs in several basic forms: classical conditioning,
operant conditioning, and observational learning
.
Classical conditioning, is a form of learning in which two stimulus events become associated in
such a way that the occurrence of one event reliably predicts the occurrence of the other.
Classical conditioning is the basis for many learned fears, including stage fright, and also helps
explain how we acquire aversions to certain foods or beverages.
Operant conditioning,is a form of learning in which organisms learn associations between
behaviors and stimuli that precede them (antecedents) or follow them (consequences).
Psychologists often apply basic operant principles to promote certain behaviors, such as
recycling and occupational safety, and to discourage others, such as self-injury.
Observational learning, is a form of learning in which organisms learn by observing the
behaviors—and the consequences of the behaviors—of others around them.
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING:
Classical Conditioning: Is a basic form of learning in which one stimulus comes to serve as
a signal for the occurrence of a second stimulus. During classical conditioning, organisms
acquire information about the relations between various stimuli, not simple associations
between them.
In classical conditioning, a physical event—termed a stimulus—that initially does not elicit a
particular response gradually acquires the capacity to elicit that response as a result of repeated
pairing with a stimulus that can elicit a reaction. Classical conditioning became the subject of
careful study in the early twentieth century, when Ivan Pavlov, a Nobel Prize–winning
physiologist from Russia, identified it as an important behavioral process.
Stimulus: Is a physical event capable of affecting behavior.
Reflex: An involuntary response, one that is not under personal control or choice.
ELEMENTS OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING:
Pavlov did not actually set out to investigate classical conditioning. Rather, his research focused
on the process of digestion in dogs. During his investigations Pavlov noticed a curious fact the
dogs in his studies often began to salivate when they saw or smelled food but before they
actually tasted it. Some even salivated at the sight of the pan where their food was kept or at the
sight or sound of the person who usually brought it. This suggested to Pavlov that these stimuli
, had somehow become signals for the food itself: The dogs had learned that when the signals
were present, food would soon follow. Pavlov quickly recognized the potential importance of
this observation and shifted the focus of his research accordingly.
The procedures that he now developed were relatively simple. On conditioning trials, a neutral
stimulus that had previously been shown to have no effect on salivation—a bell, for
example—was presented. This was immediately followed by a second stimulus known to
produce a strong effect on salivation: dried meat powder placed directly into the dog’s mouth.
The meat powder was termed the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), because its ability to produce
salivation was automatic and did not depend on the dog’s having learned the response. Similarly,
the response of salivation to the meat powder was termed an unconditioned response (UCR); it
too did not depend on previous learning. The bell was termed a conditioned stimulus (CS),
because its ability to produce salivation depended on its being paired with the meat powder.
Finally, salivation in response to the bell was termed a conditioned response (CR). The basic
question was whether the sound of the bell would gradually elicit salivation in the dogs as a
result of its repeated pairing with the meat powder. In other words, would the bell elicit a
conditioned response when it was presented alone? The answer was clearly yes. After the bell
had been paired repeatedly with the meat powder, the dogs salivated upon hearing it, even when
the bell was not followed by the meat powder.
Pavlov thus identified 4 key elements of classical conditioning:
1. Unconditioned Stimulus :
The original, naturally occurring stimulus is called the unconditioned
stimulus (UCS). The term unconditioned means “unlearned.” This is the stimulus that ordinarily
leads to the involuntary response. In the case of Pavlov’s dogs the food is the unconditioned
stimulus.
2. Unconditioned Response:
The automatic and involuntary response to the unconditioned stimulus is called the
unconditioned response (UCR) for much the same reason.It is unlearned and occurs because of
genetic “wiring” in the nervous system. For example, in Pavlov’s experiment, the salivation to
the food is the UCR (unconditioned response).
3. Conditioned Stimulus:
Pavlov determined that almost any kind of stimulus could become associated with the
unconditioned stimulus (UCS) if it is paired with the UCS often enough. In his original study, the
sight of the food dish itself became a stimulus for salivation before the food was given to the
dogs. Every time they got food (to which they automatically salivated), they saw the dish. At this
point, the dish was a neutral stimulus (NS) because it had no effect on salivation. After being
paired with the food so many times, the dish came to produce a salivation response, although a
somewhat weaker one, as did the food itself. When a previously neutral stimulus, through
repeated pairing with the unconditioned stimulus, begins to cause the same kind of involuntary
response,
learning has occurred. The previously neutral stimulus can now be called a conditioned
stimulus (CS). (Conditioned means “learned,” and, as mentioned earlier, unconditioned means
“unlearned.”)
