Environmental Psychology
Steg, L. & de Groot, J. I. M. (2021). Environmental psychology: An Introduction (2 ed.).
(2019). Wiley.
Chapter 1
Environmental psychology: history, scope and methods
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
1.1 INTRODUCTION 2
1.2 FIELD HISTORY 2
1.2.1 Towards 'architectural' psychology 3
1.2.2 Towards a green psychology 4
1.3 CURRENT SCOPE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FIELD 4
1.3.1 Interactive approach 4
1.3.2 Interdisciplinary collaboration 5
1.3.3 Problem-focused approach 5
1.3.4 Diversity of methods 6
1.4 MAIN RESEARCH METHODS IN ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 6
1.4.1 Questionnaire studies 7
1.4.2 Laboratory experiments 8
1.4.3 Computer simulation studies 8
1.4.4 Field studies 9 1.4.5
Case studies 9
1.5 OVERVIEW OF THE BOOK 10
GLOSSARY 10
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING 11
REVIEW QUESTION 11
Page 2
1.1 INTRODUCTION
This book aims to provide an introduction to environmental psychology. We define
environmental psychology as the discipline that studies the interaction between individuals
and the built and natural environment. This means that environmental psychology examines
the influence of the environment on people's experiences, behavior, and well-being, as well as
,the influence of individuals on the environment, that is, factors that influence environmental
behavior, and ways to encourage environmentally friendly behavior. This second edition of
the book provides a state-of-the-art overview of theories and research on each of these topics.
In this introductory chapter, we first provide a brief overview of the history of environmental
psychology, followed by a discussion of characteristics of the field and a description of the
main methods used in research. The chapter concludes with an outline and justification for the
book.
1.2 HISTORY OF THE FIELD
Environmental psychology has been recognized as a field of psychology since the late 1960s
and is therefore a relatively "new" field of psychology (Altman 1975; Proshansky et al. 1976;
Stokols 1977, 1978). Hellpach was one of the first researchers to introduce the term
'environmental psychology' in the first half of the twentieth century (Pol 2006). Hellpach
(1911) studied the impact of various environmental stimuli, such as color and shape, the sun
and moon, and extreme environments, on human activities. In his later work, he also studied
urban phenomena, such as displacement and overstimulation, and distinguished different
types of environments in his work, including natural, social, and historical-cultural
environments (Pol 2006). Although the themes of Hellpach are typical of the field of
environmental psychology as it has been practiced from the 1960s onwards, it was still too
early to speak of an independent field of systematic research on human-environmental
interactions.
Brunswik (1903–1955) and Lewin (1890–1947) are generally regarded as the 'founders' of
environmental psychology (Gifford 2007). None of these researchers had significant empirical
work that we would today classify as environmental psychology. However, their ideas, such
as the interaction between physical environment and psychological processes and studies of
human behaviour in real environments rather than artificial environments, were influential for
many later studies on human-environment interactions (see Box 1.1).
Page 3
TEXTBOX 1.1 THE FOUNDING FATHERS OF ENVIRONMENTAL
PSYCHOLOGY
Egon Brunswik (1903–1955) was one of the first psychologists to argue that psychology
should pay as much attention to the characteristics of the organism's environment as it
does to the organism itself. He believed that the physical environment influences
psychological processes outside of people's consciousness. He strongly advocated
research that includes all aspects of the environment of the person we are trying to
understand rather than the fragmented and artificial environments that were more typical
in the psychological studies of the time.
Kurt Lewin (1890–1947) similarly argued that research should be driven by social
problems in the real world. He introduced the concept of "social action research,"
including a non-reductionist, problem-focused approach that applies theories in practice
and thus emphasizes the importance of finding ways to conduct research to solve social
problems (Benjamin 2007). Moreover, like Brunswik, Lewin conceptualized the
environment as a key determinant of behavior. He argued that behavior is a function of the
person and the environment (Lewin 1951). Lewin focused mostly on social or
interpersonal influences rather than the physical environment (Wohlwill 1970), but he
inspired various students to continue and expand their ideas. These students included
, Barker and Bronfenbrenner, both of whom are regarded as precursors of environmental
psychology.
1.2.1 Towards 'architectural' psychology
Around the late 1940s and 1950s, systematic research into everyday physical settings and
psychological processes slowly increased with some groundbreaking studies on , for
example, human factors in work performance (Mayo 1933), lighting of homes (Chapman and
Thomas 1944), and children's behavior in natural settings (Barker and Wright 1955). So it
wasn't until the late 1950s and early 1960s that human-environment interactions were slowly
recognized as a full discipline. As most of the studies focused on how different environments
affect people's perceptions and behaviour, they were labelled as studies in 'Architectural
Psychology' to show the difference from the more traditional forms of psychology (Canter
1970; Pol 2007; Winkel et al. 2009). .
In this early period in environmental psychology, much attention was paid to the built
physical environment (i.e., architecture, technology, and engineering) and how it affected
human behavior and well-being (Bonnes and Bonaiuto 2002). This focus on the built
environment was largely governed by the political and social context of the time. Modern
architecture sought to respond to the challenges of the post-war period (Pol 2006), such as
decent housing. Questions such as how homes, offices, or hospitals might best be built for
their potential users and how environmental stresses (e.g., extreme temperatures, humidity,
crowding) would affect human performance and well-being were the focus of many
environmental psychology studies (Wohlwill 1970). Environmental psychology as a study to
design buildings that would facilitate behavioral functions was officially born.
Page 4
1.2.2 Towards a green psychology
The second period of rapid growth in environmental psychology started in the late 1960s
when people became increasingly aware of environmental problems. This resulted in studies
on sustainability issues, i.e. studies on explaining and changing environmental behaviour to
create a healthy and sustainable environment. The first studies in this area focused on air
pollution (De Groot 1967; Lindvall 1970), urban noise (Griffiths and Langdon 1968) and
assessment of environmental quality (Appleyard and Craik 1974; Craik and Mckechnie 1974).
From the 1970s onwards, the topics were further expanded to include issues of energy supply
and demand (Zube et al. 1975) and risk perceptions and risk assessment related to (energy)
technologies (Fischhoff et al. 1978). In the 1980s, the first studies were conducted that
focused on efforts to promote conservation behaviors, such as relationships between
consumer attitudes and behaviors (Cone and Hayes 1980; Stern and Gardner 1981).
1.3 CURRENT SCOPE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
FIELD
From the beginning of the twenty-first century, it has become evident that environmental
problems such as climate change, pollution, and deforestation are major challenges that
threaten the health, economic prospects, and food and water supply of people worldwide
(IPCC 2013). It is also generally known that human behavior is one of the main causes of
such environmental problems. A continuing and growing concern for environmental
psychology is finding ways to change people's behavior to reverse environmental problems,
while at the same time preserving human well-being and quality-of-life. To this end, a broad
, concept of sustainability, encompassing environmental as well as social and economic
aspects, has been widely adopted (World Commission on Environment and Development
1987). This broad concept of sustainability has increasingly become a central guiding and
unifying principle for research in environmental psychology (Giuliani and Scopelliti 2009). In
fact, it has been suggested that over the past few decades, the field of environmental
psychology has gradually evolved into a 'psychology of sustainability' (Gifford 2007).
Below, we discuss four key features of environmental psychology that characterize the field
as it stands today: a focus on human-environmental interactions, an interdisciplinary
approach, an applied focus, and a diversity of methods.
1.3.1 Interactive approach
As the definition of environmental psychology already indicates, environmental psychology is
primarily interested in the interaction between human beings and the built and natural
environment; it also explicitly takes into account how the environment
Page 5
affect behaviour as well as the factors influencing behaviour that can help improve the quality
of the environment. For example, environmental factors such as the presence of nature in the
childhood environment can affect people's connection to nature and willingness to support
nature conservation measures. In turn, people's support for nature conservation measures can
affect environmental conditions such as biodiversity. As another example , available
infrastructure for public and private transport can affect the level of car use, while the level of
car use can in turn affect the severity of environmental problems such as air pollution and
global warming. So people and the environment are interconnected in a mutual, dynamic way.
The reciprocal relationship between humans and the environment serves as the starting point
for the structure of this book. Part I discusses negative as well as positive impacts of
environmental conditions on humans, with a focus on environmental impacts on human health
and well-being. Part II discusses factors influencing human behavior that affect environmental
quality, with a focus on pro-environmental behavior. Part III discusses the factors that
influence outcomes and acceptance of strategies to encourage environmentally friendly
behaviors to create sustainable environments.
1.3.2 Interdisciplinary collaboration
Many environmental psychologists work in interdisciplinary environments, and collaborate
closely with researchers from other disciplines. Each discipline offers a different view of the
phenomenon being studied, while in combination they provide a holistic picture of the
problem at hand. As outlined in the historical overview, interdisciplinary collaboration has
largely taken place in three domains. First, environmental psychology has always worked
closely with the disciplines of architecture and geography to ensure a correct representation of
the physical-spatial components of the relationship between man and the environment (see
Part I of this book). Second, theoretical and methodological developments in environmental
psychology have been strongly influenced by social and cognitive psychology (see Part II of
this book). Third, in studying and encouraging environmentally friendly behaviors (see Part
III of this book), environmental psychologists have collaborated with environmental
scientists, among others, to correctly assess the environmental impact of different behaviors.
1.3.3 Problem-focused approach
Steg, L. & de Groot, J. I. M. (2021). Environmental psychology: An Introduction (2 ed.).
(2019). Wiley.
Chapter 1
Environmental psychology: history, scope and methods
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
1.1 INTRODUCTION 2
1.2 FIELD HISTORY 2
1.2.1 Towards 'architectural' psychology 3
1.2.2 Towards a green psychology 4
1.3 CURRENT SCOPE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FIELD 4
1.3.1 Interactive approach 4
1.3.2 Interdisciplinary collaboration 5
1.3.3 Problem-focused approach 5
1.3.4 Diversity of methods 6
1.4 MAIN RESEARCH METHODS IN ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 6
1.4.1 Questionnaire studies 7
1.4.2 Laboratory experiments 8
1.4.3 Computer simulation studies 8
1.4.4 Field studies 9 1.4.5
Case studies 9
1.5 OVERVIEW OF THE BOOK 10
GLOSSARY 10
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING 11
REVIEW QUESTION 11
Page 2
1.1 INTRODUCTION
This book aims to provide an introduction to environmental psychology. We define
environmental psychology as the discipline that studies the interaction between individuals
and the built and natural environment. This means that environmental psychology examines
the influence of the environment on people's experiences, behavior, and well-being, as well as
,the influence of individuals on the environment, that is, factors that influence environmental
behavior, and ways to encourage environmentally friendly behavior. This second edition of
the book provides a state-of-the-art overview of theories and research on each of these topics.
In this introductory chapter, we first provide a brief overview of the history of environmental
psychology, followed by a discussion of characteristics of the field and a description of the
main methods used in research. The chapter concludes with an outline and justification for the
book.
1.2 HISTORY OF THE FIELD
Environmental psychology has been recognized as a field of psychology since the late 1960s
and is therefore a relatively "new" field of psychology (Altman 1975; Proshansky et al. 1976;
Stokols 1977, 1978). Hellpach was one of the first researchers to introduce the term
'environmental psychology' in the first half of the twentieth century (Pol 2006). Hellpach
(1911) studied the impact of various environmental stimuli, such as color and shape, the sun
and moon, and extreme environments, on human activities. In his later work, he also studied
urban phenomena, such as displacement and overstimulation, and distinguished different
types of environments in his work, including natural, social, and historical-cultural
environments (Pol 2006). Although the themes of Hellpach are typical of the field of
environmental psychology as it has been practiced from the 1960s onwards, it was still too
early to speak of an independent field of systematic research on human-environmental
interactions.
Brunswik (1903–1955) and Lewin (1890–1947) are generally regarded as the 'founders' of
environmental psychology (Gifford 2007). None of these researchers had significant empirical
work that we would today classify as environmental psychology. However, their ideas, such
as the interaction between physical environment and psychological processes and studies of
human behaviour in real environments rather than artificial environments, were influential for
many later studies on human-environment interactions (see Box 1.1).
Page 3
TEXTBOX 1.1 THE FOUNDING FATHERS OF ENVIRONMENTAL
PSYCHOLOGY
Egon Brunswik (1903–1955) was one of the first psychologists to argue that psychology
should pay as much attention to the characteristics of the organism's environment as it
does to the organism itself. He believed that the physical environment influences
psychological processes outside of people's consciousness. He strongly advocated
research that includes all aspects of the environment of the person we are trying to
understand rather than the fragmented and artificial environments that were more typical
in the psychological studies of the time.
Kurt Lewin (1890–1947) similarly argued that research should be driven by social
problems in the real world. He introduced the concept of "social action research,"
including a non-reductionist, problem-focused approach that applies theories in practice
and thus emphasizes the importance of finding ways to conduct research to solve social
problems (Benjamin 2007). Moreover, like Brunswik, Lewin conceptualized the
environment as a key determinant of behavior. He argued that behavior is a function of the
person and the environment (Lewin 1951). Lewin focused mostly on social or
interpersonal influences rather than the physical environment (Wohlwill 1970), but he
inspired various students to continue and expand their ideas. These students included
, Barker and Bronfenbrenner, both of whom are regarded as precursors of environmental
psychology.
1.2.1 Towards 'architectural' psychology
Around the late 1940s and 1950s, systematic research into everyday physical settings and
psychological processes slowly increased with some groundbreaking studies on , for
example, human factors in work performance (Mayo 1933), lighting of homes (Chapman and
Thomas 1944), and children's behavior in natural settings (Barker and Wright 1955). So it
wasn't until the late 1950s and early 1960s that human-environment interactions were slowly
recognized as a full discipline. As most of the studies focused on how different environments
affect people's perceptions and behaviour, they were labelled as studies in 'Architectural
Psychology' to show the difference from the more traditional forms of psychology (Canter
1970; Pol 2007; Winkel et al. 2009). .
In this early period in environmental psychology, much attention was paid to the built
physical environment (i.e., architecture, technology, and engineering) and how it affected
human behavior and well-being (Bonnes and Bonaiuto 2002). This focus on the built
environment was largely governed by the political and social context of the time. Modern
architecture sought to respond to the challenges of the post-war period (Pol 2006), such as
decent housing. Questions such as how homes, offices, or hospitals might best be built for
their potential users and how environmental stresses (e.g., extreme temperatures, humidity,
crowding) would affect human performance and well-being were the focus of many
environmental psychology studies (Wohlwill 1970). Environmental psychology as a study to
design buildings that would facilitate behavioral functions was officially born.
Page 4
1.2.2 Towards a green psychology
The second period of rapid growth in environmental psychology started in the late 1960s
when people became increasingly aware of environmental problems. This resulted in studies
on sustainability issues, i.e. studies on explaining and changing environmental behaviour to
create a healthy and sustainable environment. The first studies in this area focused on air
pollution (De Groot 1967; Lindvall 1970), urban noise (Griffiths and Langdon 1968) and
assessment of environmental quality (Appleyard and Craik 1974; Craik and Mckechnie 1974).
From the 1970s onwards, the topics were further expanded to include issues of energy supply
and demand (Zube et al. 1975) and risk perceptions and risk assessment related to (energy)
technologies (Fischhoff et al. 1978). In the 1980s, the first studies were conducted that
focused on efforts to promote conservation behaviors, such as relationships between
consumer attitudes and behaviors (Cone and Hayes 1980; Stern and Gardner 1981).
1.3 CURRENT SCOPE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
FIELD
From the beginning of the twenty-first century, it has become evident that environmental
problems such as climate change, pollution, and deforestation are major challenges that
threaten the health, economic prospects, and food and water supply of people worldwide
(IPCC 2013). It is also generally known that human behavior is one of the main causes of
such environmental problems. A continuing and growing concern for environmental
psychology is finding ways to change people's behavior to reverse environmental problems,
while at the same time preserving human well-being and quality-of-life. To this end, a broad
, concept of sustainability, encompassing environmental as well as social and economic
aspects, has been widely adopted (World Commission on Environment and Development
1987). This broad concept of sustainability has increasingly become a central guiding and
unifying principle for research in environmental psychology (Giuliani and Scopelliti 2009). In
fact, it has been suggested that over the past few decades, the field of environmental
psychology has gradually evolved into a 'psychology of sustainability' (Gifford 2007).
Below, we discuss four key features of environmental psychology that characterize the field
as it stands today: a focus on human-environmental interactions, an interdisciplinary
approach, an applied focus, and a diversity of methods.
1.3.1 Interactive approach
As the definition of environmental psychology already indicates, environmental psychology is
primarily interested in the interaction between human beings and the built and natural
environment; it also explicitly takes into account how the environment
Page 5
affect behaviour as well as the factors influencing behaviour that can help improve the quality
of the environment. For example, environmental factors such as the presence of nature in the
childhood environment can affect people's connection to nature and willingness to support
nature conservation measures. In turn, people's support for nature conservation measures can
affect environmental conditions such as biodiversity. As another example , available
infrastructure for public and private transport can affect the level of car use, while the level of
car use can in turn affect the severity of environmental problems such as air pollution and
global warming. So people and the environment are interconnected in a mutual, dynamic way.
The reciprocal relationship between humans and the environment serves as the starting point
for the structure of this book. Part I discusses negative as well as positive impacts of
environmental conditions on humans, with a focus on environmental impacts on human health
and well-being. Part II discusses factors influencing human behavior that affect environmental
quality, with a focus on pro-environmental behavior. Part III discusses the factors that
influence outcomes and acceptance of strategies to encourage environmentally friendly
behaviors to create sustainable environments.
1.3.2 Interdisciplinary collaboration
Many environmental psychologists work in interdisciplinary environments, and collaborate
closely with researchers from other disciplines. Each discipline offers a different view of the
phenomenon being studied, while in combination they provide a holistic picture of the
problem at hand. As outlined in the historical overview, interdisciplinary collaboration has
largely taken place in three domains. First, environmental psychology has always worked
closely with the disciplines of architecture and geography to ensure a correct representation of
the physical-spatial components of the relationship between man and the environment (see
Part I of this book). Second, theoretical and methodological developments in environmental
psychology have been strongly influenced by social and cognitive psychology (see Part II of
this book). Third, in studying and encouraging environmentally friendly behaviors (see Part
III of this book), environmental psychologists have collaborated with environmental
scientists, among others, to correctly assess the environmental impact of different behaviors.
1.3.3 Problem-focused approach
