Solution – homogenous mixture of 2/more substances
Solvent – dissolving agent of a solution
Solute – substance that is dissolved
Hydrophilic – substances that are attracted to water
LEVELS OF BIOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION Hydrophobic – substances not attracted to water
1. Biosphere Molarity – number of moles of solute per L of solution
2. Ecosystems
3. Communities Concept 3.3
4. Populations Acidic and basic conditions affect living organisms
5. Organisms
6. Organs The concentration of H+ is expressed as pH
7. Tissues
8. Cells pH of a solution – the negative logarithm of the hydrogen
9. Organelles ion concentration
10. Molecules pH 0>7 – increasingly acidic
pH 7 – neutral pH level; pure water
THE CHEMISTRY OF WATER pH 7>14 – increasingly basic
Concept 3.1 Buffer – consists of an acid base pair that combines
Polar Covalent Bonds in Water result in Hydrogen Bonding reversibly with hydrogen ions, allowing it to resist pH
changes
Water – polar molecule Ocean Acidification – caused by the burning of fossil fuels
- most common molecule in all living things w/c increases the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere,
wherein some dissolve in the oceans
Hydrogen Bond – when partially negatively charged region
on the oxygen of one water molecule is attracted to the CARBON: THE BASIS OF MOLECULAR DIVERSITY
partially positively charged hydrogen of a nearby water
molecule Concept 4.1
Organic Chemistry
Concept 3.2
Four Emergent Properties of Water Organic Compounds – present in living organisms
a) Cohesion – Adhesion - contain carbon
Cohesion – hydrogen bonding keeps water molecules
close to each other • Biological Diversity – results from carbon’s ability to
Adhesion – the clinging of one substance to another form a huge no. of molecules with particular shapes
Surface Tension – how difficult it is to stretch or break and properties
the surface of a liquid • Living matter – made mostly of Carbon, Oxygen,
Hydrogen and Nitrogen
b) Temperature Regulation
Water’s High Specific Heat Concept 4.2
- 1 cal per gram & per degree Celsius Carbon molecules can form diverse molecules by bonding
- amount of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1g to four other atoms
of that substance to change its temperature by 1C
Thermal Energy – total kinetic energy associated with • Carbon – with a valence of 4, can bond to various other
the movement of atoms or molecules atoms, including O, H, N & Carbon
Temperature – average kinetic energy • Hydrocarbons – consist of carbon & hydrogen
Evaporative Cooling – contributes to the stability of - major components of petroleum (fossil fuel)
temperature in the lakes and ponds
– based on water’s high heat of vaporization Carbon Skeletons
- carbon chains form the skeletons of most organic
c) Expansion upon Freezing molecules
- water is one of the few substances that is less dense - variations:
as a solid than as a liquid; ice floats on liquid water a) Length
- this property allows life to exist under the frozen b) Branching
surfaces of lakes and polar seas c) Double bond position
d) Presence of rings
d) Versatility as solvent
- its polar molecules are attracted to ions and polar Isomers – compounds that have the same molecular
substances that can form hydrogen bonds formula but different structures and properties
, a) Structural Isomers – differ in covalent arrangements a) Linear form – long
b) Ring form – most stable form of sugars
b) Cis-trans Isomers – carbons have covalent bonds to the
same atoms, but differ in their spatial arrangements
c) Enantiomers – isomers that are mirror images of each Disaccharides – 2 monosaccharides joined by a
other and differ in shape due to the presence of an glycosidic linkage
asymmetric carbon - formed through dehydration reaction
Maltose – glucose + glucose
Sucrose – glucose + fructose
Lactose – present in milk
Concept 4.3 Polysaccharides – hundred-thousand monosaccharides
ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) a) Storage Polysaccharides - stores sources of energy
- consists of adenosine attached to three phosphate groups - present in starch (plants), glycogen (liver of
- reacts with water, forming ADP (Adenosine Diphosphate) animals)
and inorganic phosphate, which releases energy that can be b) Structural Polysaccharides - structure
used by the cell - cellulose (plants), chitin (exoskeleton of insects)
BIOLOGICAL MACROMOLECULES AND LIPIDS • Microfibrils – parallel cellulose molecules held
together
Concept 5.1
Macromolecules are polymers, built from monomers Concept 5.3
b) Lipids – large biological molecules that do not include
• Polymers – large carbohydrates (polysaccharides), true molecules
proteins and nucleic acids - mix poorly with water
- chains of monomers
• Monomers – repeating units that serve as the building 1) Fats – not polymers; blended by dehydration
blocks of a polymer reaction
• Enzymes – macromolecules that speed up chemical Glycerol -backbone of fat/triglyceride
reactions Fatty Acid – long carbon skeleton; hydrophobic
• Dehydration Reaction – reaction in which two
molecules are covalently bonded to each other with
the loss of a water molecule
• Hydrolysis – disassembly of monomers
- reverse of dehydration reaction
- water (Greek: Hydro) breakage (lysis)
Saturated Fats – with many hydrogen atoms
Large Biological Molecules - solid in room temperature (lard, butter, most
animal fats)
Concept 5.2 Unsaturated Fats – has one/more double bonds;
a) Carbohydrates – includes sugar & polymers less Hydrogen
Monosaccharides – single (monos); sugar (sacchar) - liquid in room temperature (olive, cod liver oil)
- molecular formulas are the multiple of CH2O Trans Fats – contribute to coronary heart disease
• Glucose (C6H12O6) – most common 2) Phospholipids – has a hydrophilic (polar) head, 2
monasaccharide hydrophobic (nonpolar) tails
3) Steroids – characterized by a carbon skeleton w/
Structure of Monasaccharides 4 fused rings
Aldoses – carbonyl group at end of carbon skeleton - where sex hormones are synthesized
Ketoses – carbonyl group within carbon skeleton
a) Trioses – 3 carbon sugars
b) Pentoses – 5 carbon sugars
c) Hexoses – 6 carbon sugars
Solvent – dissolving agent of a solution
Solute – substance that is dissolved
Hydrophilic – substances that are attracted to water
LEVELS OF BIOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION Hydrophobic – substances not attracted to water
1. Biosphere Molarity – number of moles of solute per L of solution
2. Ecosystems
3. Communities Concept 3.3
4. Populations Acidic and basic conditions affect living organisms
5. Organisms
6. Organs The concentration of H+ is expressed as pH
7. Tissues
8. Cells pH of a solution – the negative logarithm of the hydrogen
9. Organelles ion concentration
10. Molecules pH 0>7 – increasingly acidic
pH 7 – neutral pH level; pure water
THE CHEMISTRY OF WATER pH 7>14 – increasingly basic
Concept 3.1 Buffer – consists of an acid base pair that combines
Polar Covalent Bonds in Water result in Hydrogen Bonding reversibly with hydrogen ions, allowing it to resist pH
changes
Water – polar molecule Ocean Acidification – caused by the burning of fossil fuels
- most common molecule in all living things w/c increases the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere,
wherein some dissolve in the oceans
Hydrogen Bond – when partially negatively charged region
on the oxygen of one water molecule is attracted to the CARBON: THE BASIS OF MOLECULAR DIVERSITY
partially positively charged hydrogen of a nearby water
molecule Concept 4.1
Organic Chemistry
Concept 3.2
Four Emergent Properties of Water Organic Compounds – present in living organisms
a) Cohesion – Adhesion - contain carbon
Cohesion – hydrogen bonding keeps water molecules
close to each other • Biological Diversity – results from carbon’s ability to
Adhesion – the clinging of one substance to another form a huge no. of molecules with particular shapes
Surface Tension – how difficult it is to stretch or break and properties
the surface of a liquid • Living matter – made mostly of Carbon, Oxygen,
Hydrogen and Nitrogen
b) Temperature Regulation
Water’s High Specific Heat Concept 4.2
- 1 cal per gram & per degree Celsius Carbon molecules can form diverse molecules by bonding
- amount of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1g to four other atoms
of that substance to change its temperature by 1C
Thermal Energy – total kinetic energy associated with • Carbon – with a valence of 4, can bond to various other
the movement of atoms or molecules atoms, including O, H, N & Carbon
Temperature – average kinetic energy • Hydrocarbons – consist of carbon & hydrogen
Evaporative Cooling – contributes to the stability of - major components of petroleum (fossil fuel)
temperature in the lakes and ponds
– based on water’s high heat of vaporization Carbon Skeletons
- carbon chains form the skeletons of most organic
c) Expansion upon Freezing molecules
- water is one of the few substances that is less dense - variations:
as a solid than as a liquid; ice floats on liquid water a) Length
- this property allows life to exist under the frozen b) Branching
surfaces of lakes and polar seas c) Double bond position
d) Presence of rings
d) Versatility as solvent
- its polar molecules are attracted to ions and polar Isomers – compounds that have the same molecular
substances that can form hydrogen bonds formula but different structures and properties
, a) Structural Isomers – differ in covalent arrangements a) Linear form – long
b) Ring form – most stable form of sugars
b) Cis-trans Isomers – carbons have covalent bonds to the
same atoms, but differ in their spatial arrangements
c) Enantiomers – isomers that are mirror images of each Disaccharides – 2 monosaccharides joined by a
other and differ in shape due to the presence of an glycosidic linkage
asymmetric carbon - formed through dehydration reaction
Maltose – glucose + glucose
Sucrose – glucose + fructose
Lactose – present in milk
Concept 4.3 Polysaccharides – hundred-thousand monosaccharides
ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) a) Storage Polysaccharides - stores sources of energy
- consists of adenosine attached to three phosphate groups - present in starch (plants), glycogen (liver of
- reacts with water, forming ADP (Adenosine Diphosphate) animals)
and inorganic phosphate, which releases energy that can be b) Structural Polysaccharides - structure
used by the cell - cellulose (plants), chitin (exoskeleton of insects)
BIOLOGICAL MACROMOLECULES AND LIPIDS • Microfibrils – parallel cellulose molecules held
together
Concept 5.1
Macromolecules are polymers, built from monomers Concept 5.3
b) Lipids – large biological molecules that do not include
• Polymers – large carbohydrates (polysaccharides), true molecules
proteins and nucleic acids - mix poorly with water
- chains of monomers
• Monomers – repeating units that serve as the building 1) Fats – not polymers; blended by dehydration
blocks of a polymer reaction
• Enzymes – macromolecules that speed up chemical Glycerol -backbone of fat/triglyceride
reactions Fatty Acid – long carbon skeleton; hydrophobic
• Dehydration Reaction – reaction in which two
molecules are covalently bonded to each other with
the loss of a water molecule
• Hydrolysis – disassembly of monomers
- reverse of dehydration reaction
- water (Greek: Hydro) breakage (lysis)
Saturated Fats – with many hydrogen atoms
Large Biological Molecules - solid in room temperature (lard, butter, most
animal fats)
Concept 5.2 Unsaturated Fats – has one/more double bonds;
a) Carbohydrates – includes sugar & polymers less Hydrogen
Monosaccharides – single (monos); sugar (sacchar) - liquid in room temperature (olive, cod liver oil)
- molecular formulas are the multiple of CH2O Trans Fats – contribute to coronary heart disease
• Glucose (C6H12O6) – most common 2) Phospholipids – has a hydrophilic (polar) head, 2
monasaccharide hydrophobic (nonpolar) tails
3) Steroids – characterized by a carbon skeleton w/
Structure of Monasaccharides 4 fused rings
Aldoses – carbonyl group at end of carbon skeleton - where sex hormones are synthesized
Ketoses – carbonyl group within carbon skeleton
a) Trioses – 3 carbon sugars
b) Pentoses – 5 carbon sugars
c) Hexoses – 6 carbon sugars
