Chapter 4: Liberalism in IR
1) Basic liberal assumptions
The liberal strand in international relations emerged with the emergence of liberal states. IR
within itself emerged from a liberal perspective. Liberal philosophers such as John Locke saw
great potential for human progress in civil societies and capitalist economies, which guarantee
individual liberty
Liberals have a positive perspective on human nature, and they believe that this can be applied
in IR. They do believe in the self-interested and competitive nature of humans, however, they
also recognize the existence of mutual interests between them. In other words, war is not
inevitable: when people are guided by reason, they can reach agreements fulfilling to both sides
Modernization increases the need for cooperation
Focus of liberal theorists: freedom, cooperation, peace, progress
Liberal optimism was muted after the second world war, surged again after the end of the cold
war with the loss and demise of communism and the victory of liberalism, and muted again with
the terrorist attacks in 2001
John Locke argued that states exist to enable individuals to love happy lives without
interference from other people.
Realists regard the state as an entity where power is concentrated thus dangerous, or a
Machstaat, whereas liberals see it as a constitutional entity, in a more positive light, or
Rechstaat. These constitutional states would also respect each other and deal with each other in
accordance to mutual toleration (tolerance is a core value in liberalism)
Jeremy Bentham believed that it was in the rational interests of constitutional states to adhere
to international law in their foreign policies. This argument was later backed up by Immanuel
Kant, who thought that a world of constitutional and mutually respectful states (republics) could
establish perpetual peace
Liberals argue that modernization brings progress in most areas of life. The process of
modernization enlarges the scope for cooperation across international boundaries. Progress
means a better life for at least the majority of individuals. Humans possess reason, and when
they apply it to international affairs, greater cooperation will be the end result. Formulated less
boldly, liberals hold that anarchy in international affairs does not preclude cooperation, if
common interests exist
Post war liberalism has four strands, different from utopian liberalism: sociological liberalism;
interdependence liberalism; institutional liberalism; and republican liberalism
2) Sociological liberalism
Sociological liberals reject the realist theory that IR is about the relations between the
government and sovereign states. For them, it is about transnational relations i.e. relations
between peoples, groups, and organizations belonging to different countries
For them, transnational relations are the most important aspect in IR, since international
relations conducted between governments are supported by relations between private
individuals
Sociological liberalism returns to the old liberal notion that relations between private individuals
are more cooperative than those between governments
, Karl Deutsch and his associates argue that increased transnational relations between people
lead to peace and an absence of war, because it leads to a security community: a group of
people who have become integrated. Integration means that a sense of community has been
achieved where people believe that they can solve their conflicts through communication rather
than resorting to violence (if power is transferred to the individuals or the society/private
sphere, and it is dispersed, war is less likely to happen, because it is usually the society that
suffers when a war occurs)
Conditions to achieving a security community: greater mobility of persons; stronger economic
ties; and a wider range of mutual human transactions
Many sociological liberals believe that transnational relations help achieve new human societies
which can compete with nation-states
According to John Burton (1972): if we map the patterns of communication and transactions
between various groups (religious groups, labor groups…) we get a more accurate picture of the
world because it represents actual patterns of human behavior rather than artificial boundaries
of states (cobweb of groups rather than billiard balls as realists say)
The cobweb model implies a world driven by mutual benefits and cooperation. Because
individuals are members of many different groups, conflict will be muted if not eliminated;
overlapping memberships minimize the risk of serious conflict between any two groups
James Rosenau furthers this notion, he argues that individual transactions have great
implications and consequences for global affairs: (1) individuals have been getting better
education and accessing electric means of communication (2) states’ decreased capacity of
control in a complex world, where world are less tied to their states (the state-centric, anarchic
system has not disappeared but a new ‘multicentric world has emerged that is composed of
diverse “sovereignty-free” collectivities which exist apart from and in competition with the
state-centric world of “sovereignty- bound” actors’)
Rosenau supports the liberal idea that a pluralist world with transnational networks is a peaceful
one. In some ways, it will be a less stable world, because the old world order built on state
powers will decrease, however conflicts will not be solved with force and the people who are
members of overlapping groups will not become enemies
Moises Naim (2013): The rise of micropowers (fringe political parties, leaderless young people in
city squares, hackers, loosely organized activists), Naím argues, is due to three revolutions. The
‘More revolution’ means that many more people are living longer and healthier lives and that
makes them more difficult to ‘regiment and the ‘Mobility revolution’ implies that people are
able to move around a lot more than earlier: they cross borders, they communicate globally,
and they easily switch loyalties. Finally, the ‘Mentality revolution’ concerns the aspiration of the
rapidly growing middle classes around the world. They shake off traditional values, take nothing
for granted, and they do not easily defer to authorities
IR is not only a study of relations between national governments; IR scholars also study
relations between private individuals, groups, and societies. Overlapping interdependent
relations between people are bound to be more cooperative than relations between states
because state citizenship is exclusive and, according to sociological liberalism, state interests
do not overlap and cross-cut. A world with a large number of transnational networks will thus
be more peaceful.
3) Interdependence liberalism
1) Basic liberal assumptions
The liberal strand in international relations emerged with the emergence of liberal states. IR
within itself emerged from a liberal perspective. Liberal philosophers such as John Locke saw
great potential for human progress in civil societies and capitalist economies, which guarantee
individual liberty
Liberals have a positive perspective on human nature, and they believe that this can be applied
in IR. They do believe in the self-interested and competitive nature of humans, however, they
also recognize the existence of mutual interests between them. In other words, war is not
inevitable: when people are guided by reason, they can reach agreements fulfilling to both sides
Modernization increases the need for cooperation
Focus of liberal theorists: freedom, cooperation, peace, progress
Liberal optimism was muted after the second world war, surged again after the end of the cold
war with the loss and demise of communism and the victory of liberalism, and muted again with
the terrorist attacks in 2001
John Locke argued that states exist to enable individuals to love happy lives without
interference from other people.
Realists regard the state as an entity where power is concentrated thus dangerous, or a
Machstaat, whereas liberals see it as a constitutional entity, in a more positive light, or
Rechstaat. These constitutional states would also respect each other and deal with each other in
accordance to mutual toleration (tolerance is a core value in liberalism)
Jeremy Bentham believed that it was in the rational interests of constitutional states to adhere
to international law in their foreign policies. This argument was later backed up by Immanuel
Kant, who thought that a world of constitutional and mutually respectful states (republics) could
establish perpetual peace
Liberals argue that modernization brings progress in most areas of life. The process of
modernization enlarges the scope for cooperation across international boundaries. Progress
means a better life for at least the majority of individuals. Humans possess reason, and when
they apply it to international affairs, greater cooperation will be the end result. Formulated less
boldly, liberals hold that anarchy in international affairs does not preclude cooperation, if
common interests exist
Post war liberalism has four strands, different from utopian liberalism: sociological liberalism;
interdependence liberalism; institutional liberalism; and republican liberalism
2) Sociological liberalism
Sociological liberals reject the realist theory that IR is about the relations between the
government and sovereign states. For them, it is about transnational relations i.e. relations
between peoples, groups, and organizations belonging to different countries
For them, transnational relations are the most important aspect in IR, since international
relations conducted between governments are supported by relations between private
individuals
Sociological liberalism returns to the old liberal notion that relations between private individuals
are more cooperative than those between governments
, Karl Deutsch and his associates argue that increased transnational relations between people
lead to peace and an absence of war, because it leads to a security community: a group of
people who have become integrated. Integration means that a sense of community has been
achieved where people believe that they can solve their conflicts through communication rather
than resorting to violence (if power is transferred to the individuals or the society/private
sphere, and it is dispersed, war is less likely to happen, because it is usually the society that
suffers when a war occurs)
Conditions to achieving a security community: greater mobility of persons; stronger economic
ties; and a wider range of mutual human transactions
Many sociological liberals believe that transnational relations help achieve new human societies
which can compete with nation-states
According to John Burton (1972): if we map the patterns of communication and transactions
between various groups (religious groups, labor groups…) we get a more accurate picture of the
world because it represents actual patterns of human behavior rather than artificial boundaries
of states (cobweb of groups rather than billiard balls as realists say)
The cobweb model implies a world driven by mutual benefits and cooperation. Because
individuals are members of many different groups, conflict will be muted if not eliminated;
overlapping memberships minimize the risk of serious conflict between any two groups
James Rosenau furthers this notion, he argues that individual transactions have great
implications and consequences for global affairs: (1) individuals have been getting better
education and accessing electric means of communication (2) states’ decreased capacity of
control in a complex world, where world are less tied to their states (the state-centric, anarchic
system has not disappeared but a new ‘multicentric world has emerged that is composed of
diverse “sovereignty-free” collectivities which exist apart from and in competition with the
state-centric world of “sovereignty- bound” actors’)
Rosenau supports the liberal idea that a pluralist world with transnational networks is a peaceful
one. In some ways, it will be a less stable world, because the old world order built on state
powers will decrease, however conflicts will not be solved with force and the people who are
members of overlapping groups will not become enemies
Moises Naim (2013): The rise of micropowers (fringe political parties, leaderless young people in
city squares, hackers, loosely organized activists), Naím argues, is due to three revolutions. The
‘More revolution’ means that many more people are living longer and healthier lives and that
makes them more difficult to ‘regiment and the ‘Mobility revolution’ implies that people are
able to move around a lot more than earlier: they cross borders, they communicate globally,
and they easily switch loyalties. Finally, the ‘Mentality revolution’ concerns the aspiration of the
rapidly growing middle classes around the world. They shake off traditional values, take nothing
for granted, and they do not easily defer to authorities
IR is not only a study of relations between national governments; IR scholars also study
relations between private individuals, groups, and societies. Overlapping interdependent
relations between people are bound to be more cooperative than relations between states
because state citizenship is exclusive and, according to sociological liberalism, state interests
do not overlap and cross-cut. A world with a large number of transnational networks will thus
be more peaceful.
3) Interdependence liberalism
