Chapter 6
Military Forces and terrorism
A state leader in a conflict can apply various kinds of leverage to influence the outcome.
Beyond defending their territories, states develop military capabilities for several other
purposes. They often hope to deter attack by having the means to retaliate. They may
also hope to compel other states to behave in certain ways, by threatening an attack if
the state does not comply. States also use military forces for humanitarian assistance after
disasters, for peacekeeping, for surveillance of drug trafficking, and for repression of
domestic political dissent, among other missions.
Military capabilities divide into three types: conventional forces, irregular forces
(terrorism, militias), and weapons of mass destruction (nuclear, chemical, and biological
weapons).
Land Forces: Controlling Territory
Whatever their ultimate causes and objectives, most wars involve a struggle to control
territory. Thus, the most fundamental purpose of conventional forces is to take, hold, or
defend territory.
Armies are adapted to this purpose. Military forces with armed foot soldiers can occupy a
territory militarily. Foot soldiers are called the infantry. They use assault rifles and other
light weapons (such as mines and machine guns) as well as heavy artillery of various types.
Artillery is extremely destructive and not very discriminating: it usually causes the most
damage and casualties in wars. Armor refers to tanks and armored vehicles.
Counterinsurgency has received growing attention in recent years because of Iraq and
Afghanistan, but it is central to all 14 wars currently in progress worldwide. Counter-
insurgency warfare often includes programs to try to “win the hearts and minds” of
populations so that they stop sheltering the guerrillas. In some ways, because
counterinsurgency warfare is as much about political gains as military strategy, it is the most
complex type of warfare. While battling armed factions of an insurgency, a government must
essentially conduct a public relations campaign to persuade the population to abandon
the movement, while providing public services (such as education and welfare programs) to
show a government’s responsiveness to the population.
A common tool of guerrillas, insurgents, and the governments fighting them are land mines,
which are simple, small, and cheap containers of explosives with a trigger activated by
contact or sensor. Public opinion and NGOs have pressured governments to restrict the use of
land mines. A treaty to ban land mines was signed by more than 100 countries at a 1997
conference organized by Canada.
Navies are adapted primarily to control passage through the seas and to attack land
near coastlines. Controlling the seas in wartime allows states to move their own goods and
, military forces by sea while preventing enemies from doing so. Navies can also blockade
enemy ports, as, for example, Israel does to control sea access to Hamas-ruled Gaza.
Aircraft carriers—mobile platforms for attack aircraft—are instruments of power
projection that can attack virtually any state in the world. Aircraft carriers are extremely
expensive and typically require 20 to 25 supporting ships for protection and supply. Few
states can afford even one. Only the United States operates large carriers, known as
supercarriers—11 of them, costing more than $5 billion each
Air forces serve several purposes—strategic bombing of land or sea targets; “close air
sup- port” (battle field bombing); interception of other aircraft; reconnaissance; and airlift of
supplies, weapons, and troops. Missiles—whether red from air, land, or sea—are increasingly
important. Traditionally, and still to some extent, aerial bombing resembles artillery shelling
in that it causes great destruction with little discrimination. This has changed somewhat as
smart bombs improve accuracy. Other bombs use GPS navigation (see p. 201) to hit targets
through clouds, smoke, or sandstorms.
The increasing sophistication of electronic equipment and the high-performance requirements
of attack aircraft make air forces expensive—totally out of reach for some states. Thus, rich
states have huge advantages over poor ones in air warfare.
All military operations rely heavily on logistical support such as food, fuel, and ordnance
(weapons and ammunition). Military logistics is a huge operation, and in most armed forces
the majority of soldiers are not combat troops. Only the United States today fully possesses
such a capability—with worldwide military alliances, air and naval bases, troops stationed
overseas, and aircraft carriers plying the world’s oceans.
Satellites are used extensively for military purposes, but these purposes thus far do not
include attack. Satellites perform military surveillance and mapping, communications,
weather assessment, and early warning of ballistic missile launches. Satellites also
provide navigational information to military forces—army units, ships, planes, and even
guided missiles in fight. Poorer states can buy satellite photos—including high-resolution
pictures that Russia sells for hard currency.
Britain and Israel have used drones for attacks, but most drones worldwide are used for
surveillance. Electronic warfare (now broadened to information warfare) refers to the uses
of the electromagnetic spectrum (radio waves, radar, infrared, etc.) in war, and is critical to
all technologically advanced military forces. Strategies for cyberwar—disrupting enemy
computer networks to degrade command and control, or even hacking into bank accounts
electronically—may figure prominently in future wars, although they have not yet.
The U.S. State Department listed 45 foreign terrorist organizations in 2010. Some are
motivated by religion (for example, al Qaeda) but others by class ideology (for example,
Shining Path in Peru) or by ethnic conflict and nationalism (for example, Basque Father- land
and Liberty).
Terrorism refers to political violence that targets civilians deliberately and
indiscriminately. More than guerrilla warfare, terrorism is a shadowy world of faceless
Military Forces and terrorism
A state leader in a conflict can apply various kinds of leverage to influence the outcome.
Beyond defending their territories, states develop military capabilities for several other
purposes. They often hope to deter attack by having the means to retaliate. They may
also hope to compel other states to behave in certain ways, by threatening an attack if
the state does not comply. States also use military forces for humanitarian assistance after
disasters, for peacekeeping, for surveillance of drug trafficking, and for repression of
domestic political dissent, among other missions.
Military capabilities divide into three types: conventional forces, irregular forces
(terrorism, militias), and weapons of mass destruction (nuclear, chemical, and biological
weapons).
Land Forces: Controlling Territory
Whatever their ultimate causes and objectives, most wars involve a struggle to control
territory. Thus, the most fundamental purpose of conventional forces is to take, hold, or
defend territory.
Armies are adapted to this purpose. Military forces with armed foot soldiers can occupy a
territory militarily. Foot soldiers are called the infantry. They use assault rifles and other
light weapons (such as mines and machine guns) as well as heavy artillery of various types.
Artillery is extremely destructive and not very discriminating: it usually causes the most
damage and casualties in wars. Armor refers to tanks and armored vehicles.
Counterinsurgency has received growing attention in recent years because of Iraq and
Afghanistan, but it is central to all 14 wars currently in progress worldwide. Counter-
insurgency warfare often includes programs to try to “win the hearts and minds” of
populations so that they stop sheltering the guerrillas. In some ways, because
counterinsurgency warfare is as much about political gains as military strategy, it is the most
complex type of warfare. While battling armed factions of an insurgency, a government must
essentially conduct a public relations campaign to persuade the population to abandon
the movement, while providing public services (such as education and welfare programs) to
show a government’s responsiveness to the population.
A common tool of guerrillas, insurgents, and the governments fighting them are land mines,
which are simple, small, and cheap containers of explosives with a trigger activated by
contact or sensor. Public opinion and NGOs have pressured governments to restrict the use of
land mines. A treaty to ban land mines was signed by more than 100 countries at a 1997
conference organized by Canada.
Navies are adapted primarily to control passage through the seas and to attack land
near coastlines. Controlling the seas in wartime allows states to move their own goods and
, military forces by sea while preventing enemies from doing so. Navies can also blockade
enemy ports, as, for example, Israel does to control sea access to Hamas-ruled Gaza.
Aircraft carriers—mobile platforms for attack aircraft—are instruments of power
projection that can attack virtually any state in the world. Aircraft carriers are extremely
expensive and typically require 20 to 25 supporting ships for protection and supply. Few
states can afford even one. Only the United States operates large carriers, known as
supercarriers—11 of them, costing more than $5 billion each
Air forces serve several purposes—strategic bombing of land or sea targets; “close air
sup- port” (battle field bombing); interception of other aircraft; reconnaissance; and airlift of
supplies, weapons, and troops. Missiles—whether red from air, land, or sea—are increasingly
important. Traditionally, and still to some extent, aerial bombing resembles artillery shelling
in that it causes great destruction with little discrimination. This has changed somewhat as
smart bombs improve accuracy. Other bombs use GPS navigation (see p. 201) to hit targets
through clouds, smoke, or sandstorms.
The increasing sophistication of electronic equipment and the high-performance requirements
of attack aircraft make air forces expensive—totally out of reach for some states. Thus, rich
states have huge advantages over poor ones in air warfare.
All military operations rely heavily on logistical support such as food, fuel, and ordnance
(weapons and ammunition). Military logistics is a huge operation, and in most armed forces
the majority of soldiers are not combat troops. Only the United States today fully possesses
such a capability—with worldwide military alliances, air and naval bases, troops stationed
overseas, and aircraft carriers plying the world’s oceans.
Satellites are used extensively for military purposes, but these purposes thus far do not
include attack. Satellites perform military surveillance and mapping, communications,
weather assessment, and early warning of ballistic missile launches. Satellites also
provide navigational information to military forces—army units, ships, planes, and even
guided missiles in fight. Poorer states can buy satellite photos—including high-resolution
pictures that Russia sells for hard currency.
Britain and Israel have used drones for attacks, but most drones worldwide are used for
surveillance. Electronic warfare (now broadened to information warfare) refers to the uses
of the electromagnetic spectrum (radio waves, radar, infrared, etc.) in war, and is critical to
all technologically advanced military forces. Strategies for cyberwar—disrupting enemy
computer networks to degrade command and control, or even hacking into bank accounts
electronically—may figure prominently in future wars, although they have not yet.
The U.S. State Department listed 45 foreign terrorist organizations in 2010. Some are
motivated by religion (for example, al Qaeda) but others by class ideology (for example,
Shining Path in Peru) or by ethnic conflict and nationalism (for example, Basque Father- land
and Liberty).
Terrorism refers to political violence that targets civilians deliberately and
indiscriminately. More than guerrilla warfare, terrorism is a shadowy world of faceless
