Inhoud
Chapter 6: Energy and Life ...................................................................................................................... 5
6.1 An organism’s metabolism transforms matter and energy, subject to the laws of
thermodynamics.................................................................................................................................. 5
Organisatie van de chemie van het leven in metabole routes (organization of the chemistry of
life into metabolic pathways)......................................................................................................... 5
Vormen van energie (forms of energy)........................................................................................... 5
De wetten van energietransformatie (the laws of energy transformation) .................................. 6
De eerste wet van de thermodynamica (the first law of thermodynamics).................................. 6
De tweede wet van thermodynamica (the second law of thermodynamics)................................ 6
Biologische volgorde en stoornissen (biological order and disorder) ............................................ 6
6.2 The free-energy change of a reaction tells us whether or not the reaction occurs spontaneously
............................................................................................................................................................. 7
Vrije energie verandering, ∆G (free energy change, ∆G) ............................................................... 7
Vrije energie en metabolisme (free energy and metabolism) ....................................................... 7
Evenwicht en metabolisme (equilibrium and metabolism) ........................................................... 8
6.3 ATP powers cellular work by coupling exergonic reactions to endergonic reactions ................... 8
De structuur en hydrolyse van ATP (the structure and hydrolysis of ATP) .................................... 9
Hoe de hydrolyse van ATP werkt (How the hydrolysis of ATP performs work) .............................. 9
6.4 Enzymes speed up metabolic reactions by lowering energy barriers ......................................... 11
Hoe enzymen reacties versnellen (how enzymes speed up reactions) ....................................... 12
Substraatspecificiteit van enzymen (substrate specificity of Enzymes)....................................... 12
Katalyse in de actieve site van het enzym (catalysis in the enzyme’s active site) ....................... 12
Effecten van locale condities van enzym activiteit (effects on local conditions on enzyme
activity).......................................................................................................................................... 13
6.5 Regulation of enzyme activity helps control metabolism ........................................................... 14
Allosterische regulatie van enzymen (allosteric regulation of Enzymes)..................................... 14
Allosterische activatie en remming (Allosteric activation and inhibition) ................................... 14
Feedbackremming (feedback inhibition) ...................................................................................... 15
Specifieke lokalisatie van enzymen in de cel (Specific Localization of Enzymes Within the Cell) 15
Chapter 10: Cell Respiration .................................................................................................................. 16
10.1 Catabolic pathways yield energy by oxidizing organic fuels ..................................................... 16
Katabole wegen en productie van ATP (Catabolic pathways and Production of ATP) ................ 16
Redox Reactie: Oxidatie en reductie (Redox Reactions: Oxidation and Reduction) ................... 16
Het principe van Redox ................................................................................................................. 17
, Chemische reacties die elektronen overbrengen tussen reagentia worden oxidatie-
reductiereactie (oxidation-reduction reactions) of redoxreacties (redox reactions) genoemd.
Het verlies van een elektron van een stof wordt oxidatie (oxidation) genoemd. De toevoeging
van elektronen aan een andere stof wordt reductie (reduction) genoemd. ................................ 17
Oxidatie van organische brandstofmoleculen tijdens cellulaire ademhaling (oxidation of organic
fuel molecules during cellular respiration) .................................................................................. 17
Trapsgewijze energieoogst via NAD+ en de elektronentransportketen (Stepwise Energy Harvest
via NAD+ and the Electron Transport Chain) ............................................................................... 17
De meeste elektronen reizen de volgende route af: glucose → NADH →
elektronentransportketen → zuurstof. ......................................................................................... 18
De stadia van cellulaire ademhaling (The Stages of Cellular Respiration) ................................... 18
Het oogsten van energie uit glucose door cellulaire ademhaling is een cumulatieve functie van
drie metabole stadia’s: .................................................................................................................. 19
1. Glycolyse (glycolysis): het splitst een glucose molecuul op in twee moleculen pyruvaat. Het
vindt plaat in het cytosol. Het afbraakproces begint door glucose te breken in twee moleculen
van een verbinding die pyruvaat wordt genoemd. Bij eukaryoot komt pyruvaat het
mitochondrion binnen en wordt geoxideerd tot een verbinding acetyl CoA, die de
citroenzuurcyclus ingaat................................................................................................................ 19
2. Pyruvaat oxidatie en de citroenzuurcyclus (pyruvate oxidation and the citric acid cycle =
TCA): voltooit de afbraak van glucose. Vorming van een kleien aantal ATP................................. 19
3. Oxidatieve fosforylering (oxidative phosphorylation): zorgt voor de meeste ATP synthese.
Hierbij wordt de meeste ATP genereert, omdat het wordt aangedreven voor redoxreacties. .... 19
10.2 Glycolysis harvests chemical energy by oxidizing glucose to pyruvate..................................... 19
10.3 After pyruvate is oxidized, the citric acid cycle completes the energy-yielding oxidation of
organic molecules.............................................................................................................................. 20
Oxidatie van pyruvaat tot Acetyl CoA (Oxidation of Pyruvate to Acetyl CoA)............................. 20
10.4 During oxidative phosphorylation, chemiosmosis couples electron transport to ATP synthesis
........................................................................................................................................................... 22
De weg van elektronen transport (The pathway of Electron Transport) ..................................... 22
Chemiosmosis: de energie koppeling mechanisme (Chemiosmosis: The Energy-Coupling
Mechanism) .................................................................................................................................. 23
....................................................................................................................................................... 23
....................................................................................................................................................... 23
ATP productie door cellulaire ademhaling (An Accounting of ATP Production by Cellular
Respiration) ................................................................................................................................... 23
10.5 Fermentation and anaerobic respiration enable cells to produce ATP without the use of
oxygen ............................................................................................................................................... 24
Typen van fermentatie (Types of fermentation) .......................................................................... 24
Fermentatie vergelijken met anaerobe en aerobe ademhaling (Comparing Fermentation with
Anaerobic and Aerobic Respiration) ............................................................................................ 24
10.6 Glycolysis and the citric acid cycle connect to many other metabolic pathways ..................... 25
, De veelzijdigheid van katabolisme (The versatility of Catabolism).............................................. 25
Biosynthese (anabole paden) (Biosynthesis (Anabolic Pathways)) ............................................. 26
Pentose fosfaat weg (Pentose phosphate pathway) ................................................................... 26
Regulatie van cellulaire ademhaling via feedbackmechanismen (Regulation of Cellular
Respiration via Feedback Mechanisms) ....................................................................................... 26
Chapter 40: The animal body ................................................................................................................ 27
40.1 Animal form and function are correlated at all levels of organization ..................................... 27
Uitwisseling met de omgeving (Exchange with the environment) .............................................. 27
Hiërarchische organisatie van lichaamsplannen (Hierarchical Organization of Body Plans) ...... 28
Coordinatie en controlen (Coordination and control) ................................................................. 29
40.2 Feedback control maintains the internal environment in many animals ................................. 29
Regulatie en conformeren (regulating and conforming) ............................................................. 30
Homeostase (homeostasis)........................................................................................................... 30
Wijzigingen in homeostase (alterations in homeostasis)............................................................. 30
40.3 Homeostatic processes for thermoregulation involve form, function, and behaviour ............ 30
Endotherm en extotherm (endothermy and extothermy) .......................................................... 31
Variatie in lichaamstemperatuur (Variations in body temperature) ........................................... 31
Balans van warmteverlies en winst (balancing heat loss and gain) ............................................. 31
Acclimatisatie in thermoregulatie (acclimatization in thermoregulation) .................................. 32
Fysiologische thermostaten en koorts (physiological thermostats and fever)............................ 32
40.4 Energy requirements are related to animal size, activity, and environment ............................ 33
Kwantificering van energieverbruik (quantifying energy use) ..................................................... 33
Minimale metabolische snelheid en thermoregulatie (minimum metabolic rate and
thermoregulation) ........................................................................................................................ 33
Invloeden op de metabolisme (influences on metabolic rate) .................................................... 33
Chapter 41: Chemical signals in animals ............................................................................................... 35
41.1 Hormones and other signaling molecules bind to target receptros, triggering specific response
pathways ........................................................................................................................................... 35
Intercellulaire communicatie (intercellular communication) ...................................................... 35
Klassen van lokale regulatoren (classes of local regulators) ........................................................ 36
Klassen van hormonen (classes of hormones) ............................................................................. 36
Respons voor water oplosbare hormonen (response pathway for water soluble hormones) ..... 36
Respons voor lipide oplosbare hormonen (response pathway for lipid soluble hormones) ...... 36
41.2 Feedback regulation and coordination with the nervous system are common in hormone
pathways ........................................................................................................................................... 37
Feedback regulatie (feedback regulation) .................................................................................... 38
Gewervelde (vertebrates) ............................................................................................................. 38
, Posterior hypofyse hormonen (posterior pituitary hormones) ................................................... 38
Anterior hypofyse hormonen (anterior pituitary hormones) ...................................................... 38
Schildklierregulatie; een hormonale cascade-route (thyroid regulation; a hormone cascade
pathway) ....................................................................................................................................... 39
Groeihormoon (GH = growth hormone) ....................................................................................... 39
Chapter 42: Animal Digestive Systems .................................................................................................. 40
42.1 An animal’s diet must supply chemical energy, organic building blocks, and essential nutrients
........................................................................................................................................................... 40
Essentiële voedingsstoffen (essential nutrients) .......................................................................... 40
Dieet tekortkomingen (dietary deficiencies) ................................................................................ 41
Ondervoeding (undernourishment) .............................................................................................. 42
42.2 Food processing involves ingestion, digestion, absorption, and elimination ........................... 42
Spijsverteringscompartimenten (digestive compartments)......................................................... 42
Intracellulaire vertering (intracellular digestion) ......................................................................... 42
Extracellulaire vertering (extracellular digestion) ........................................................................ 42
42.3 Organs specialized for sequential stages of food processing form the mammalian digestive
system ............................................................................................................................................... 43
De mondholte, keelholte en slokdarm (the oral cavity, pharynx and esophagus) ...................... 43
Spijsvertering in de maag (digestion in the stomach) .................................................................. 44
Chemische vertering in de maag (chemical digestion in the stomach) ....................................... 44
Maag dynamiek (stomach dynamics) ........................................................................................... 45
Spijsvertering in de dunne darm (digestion in the small intestine) ............................................. 46
Absorptie in de dunne darm (absorption in the small intestine) .................................................. 46
Verwerking in de dikke darm (processing in the large intestine).................................................. 47
42.4 Evolutionary adaptations of vertebrate digestive systems correlate with diet ........................ 47
Tandheelkundige aanpassingen (dental adaptations) ................................................................. 47
Maag- en darmaanpassingen (stomach and intestinal adaptations) ............................................ 47
Mutualistische aanpassingen (mutualistic adaptations) .............................................................. 47
42.5 Feedback circuits regulate digestion, energy storage, and appetite ........................................ 48
Regulatie van de spijsvertering (regulation of digestion) ............................................................ 48
Regulering van energieopslag (regulation of energy storage) ..................................................... 48
Glucose homeostase (glucose homeostasis) ................................................................................ 48
Diabetes mellitus ........................................................................................................................... 49
Regulering van eetlust en consumptie (regulation of appetite and consumption)..................... 49
Chapter 6: Energy and Life ...................................................................................................................... 5
6.1 An organism’s metabolism transforms matter and energy, subject to the laws of
thermodynamics.................................................................................................................................. 5
Organisatie van de chemie van het leven in metabole routes (organization of the chemistry of
life into metabolic pathways)......................................................................................................... 5
Vormen van energie (forms of energy)........................................................................................... 5
De wetten van energietransformatie (the laws of energy transformation) .................................. 6
De eerste wet van de thermodynamica (the first law of thermodynamics).................................. 6
De tweede wet van thermodynamica (the second law of thermodynamics)................................ 6
Biologische volgorde en stoornissen (biological order and disorder) ............................................ 6
6.2 The free-energy change of a reaction tells us whether or not the reaction occurs spontaneously
............................................................................................................................................................. 7
Vrije energie verandering, ∆G (free energy change, ∆G) ............................................................... 7
Vrije energie en metabolisme (free energy and metabolism) ....................................................... 7
Evenwicht en metabolisme (equilibrium and metabolism) ........................................................... 8
6.3 ATP powers cellular work by coupling exergonic reactions to endergonic reactions ................... 8
De structuur en hydrolyse van ATP (the structure and hydrolysis of ATP) .................................... 9
Hoe de hydrolyse van ATP werkt (How the hydrolysis of ATP performs work) .............................. 9
6.4 Enzymes speed up metabolic reactions by lowering energy barriers ......................................... 11
Hoe enzymen reacties versnellen (how enzymes speed up reactions) ....................................... 12
Substraatspecificiteit van enzymen (substrate specificity of Enzymes)....................................... 12
Katalyse in de actieve site van het enzym (catalysis in the enzyme’s active site) ....................... 12
Effecten van locale condities van enzym activiteit (effects on local conditions on enzyme
activity).......................................................................................................................................... 13
6.5 Regulation of enzyme activity helps control metabolism ........................................................... 14
Allosterische regulatie van enzymen (allosteric regulation of Enzymes)..................................... 14
Allosterische activatie en remming (Allosteric activation and inhibition) ................................... 14
Feedbackremming (feedback inhibition) ...................................................................................... 15
Specifieke lokalisatie van enzymen in de cel (Specific Localization of Enzymes Within the Cell) 15
Chapter 10: Cell Respiration .................................................................................................................. 16
10.1 Catabolic pathways yield energy by oxidizing organic fuels ..................................................... 16
Katabole wegen en productie van ATP (Catabolic pathways and Production of ATP) ................ 16
Redox Reactie: Oxidatie en reductie (Redox Reactions: Oxidation and Reduction) ................... 16
Het principe van Redox ................................................................................................................. 17
, Chemische reacties die elektronen overbrengen tussen reagentia worden oxidatie-
reductiereactie (oxidation-reduction reactions) of redoxreacties (redox reactions) genoemd.
Het verlies van een elektron van een stof wordt oxidatie (oxidation) genoemd. De toevoeging
van elektronen aan een andere stof wordt reductie (reduction) genoemd. ................................ 17
Oxidatie van organische brandstofmoleculen tijdens cellulaire ademhaling (oxidation of organic
fuel molecules during cellular respiration) .................................................................................. 17
Trapsgewijze energieoogst via NAD+ en de elektronentransportketen (Stepwise Energy Harvest
via NAD+ and the Electron Transport Chain) ............................................................................... 17
De meeste elektronen reizen de volgende route af: glucose → NADH →
elektronentransportketen → zuurstof. ......................................................................................... 18
De stadia van cellulaire ademhaling (The Stages of Cellular Respiration) ................................... 18
Het oogsten van energie uit glucose door cellulaire ademhaling is een cumulatieve functie van
drie metabole stadia’s: .................................................................................................................. 19
1. Glycolyse (glycolysis): het splitst een glucose molecuul op in twee moleculen pyruvaat. Het
vindt plaat in het cytosol. Het afbraakproces begint door glucose te breken in twee moleculen
van een verbinding die pyruvaat wordt genoemd. Bij eukaryoot komt pyruvaat het
mitochondrion binnen en wordt geoxideerd tot een verbinding acetyl CoA, die de
citroenzuurcyclus ingaat................................................................................................................ 19
2. Pyruvaat oxidatie en de citroenzuurcyclus (pyruvate oxidation and the citric acid cycle =
TCA): voltooit de afbraak van glucose. Vorming van een kleien aantal ATP................................. 19
3. Oxidatieve fosforylering (oxidative phosphorylation): zorgt voor de meeste ATP synthese.
Hierbij wordt de meeste ATP genereert, omdat het wordt aangedreven voor redoxreacties. .... 19
10.2 Glycolysis harvests chemical energy by oxidizing glucose to pyruvate..................................... 19
10.3 After pyruvate is oxidized, the citric acid cycle completes the energy-yielding oxidation of
organic molecules.............................................................................................................................. 20
Oxidatie van pyruvaat tot Acetyl CoA (Oxidation of Pyruvate to Acetyl CoA)............................. 20
10.4 During oxidative phosphorylation, chemiosmosis couples electron transport to ATP synthesis
........................................................................................................................................................... 22
De weg van elektronen transport (The pathway of Electron Transport) ..................................... 22
Chemiosmosis: de energie koppeling mechanisme (Chemiosmosis: The Energy-Coupling
Mechanism) .................................................................................................................................. 23
....................................................................................................................................................... 23
....................................................................................................................................................... 23
ATP productie door cellulaire ademhaling (An Accounting of ATP Production by Cellular
Respiration) ................................................................................................................................... 23
10.5 Fermentation and anaerobic respiration enable cells to produce ATP without the use of
oxygen ............................................................................................................................................... 24
Typen van fermentatie (Types of fermentation) .......................................................................... 24
Fermentatie vergelijken met anaerobe en aerobe ademhaling (Comparing Fermentation with
Anaerobic and Aerobic Respiration) ............................................................................................ 24
10.6 Glycolysis and the citric acid cycle connect to many other metabolic pathways ..................... 25
, De veelzijdigheid van katabolisme (The versatility of Catabolism).............................................. 25
Biosynthese (anabole paden) (Biosynthesis (Anabolic Pathways)) ............................................. 26
Pentose fosfaat weg (Pentose phosphate pathway) ................................................................... 26
Regulatie van cellulaire ademhaling via feedbackmechanismen (Regulation of Cellular
Respiration via Feedback Mechanisms) ....................................................................................... 26
Chapter 40: The animal body ................................................................................................................ 27
40.1 Animal form and function are correlated at all levels of organization ..................................... 27
Uitwisseling met de omgeving (Exchange with the environment) .............................................. 27
Hiërarchische organisatie van lichaamsplannen (Hierarchical Organization of Body Plans) ...... 28
Coordinatie en controlen (Coordination and control) ................................................................. 29
40.2 Feedback control maintains the internal environment in many animals ................................. 29
Regulatie en conformeren (regulating and conforming) ............................................................. 30
Homeostase (homeostasis)........................................................................................................... 30
Wijzigingen in homeostase (alterations in homeostasis)............................................................. 30
40.3 Homeostatic processes for thermoregulation involve form, function, and behaviour ............ 30
Endotherm en extotherm (endothermy and extothermy) .......................................................... 31
Variatie in lichaamstemperatuur (Variations in body temperature) ........................................... 31
Balans van warmteverlies en winst (balancing heat loss and gain) ............................................. 31
Acclimatisatie in thermoregulatie (acclimatization in thermoregulation) .................................. 32
Fysiologische thermostaten en koorts (physiological thermostats and fever)............................ 32
40.4 Energy requirements are related to animal size, activity, and environment ............................ 33
Kwantificering van energieverbruik (quantifying energy use) ..................................................... 33
Minimale metabolische snelheid en thermoregulatie (minimum metabolic rate and
thermoregulation) ........................................................................................................................ 33
Invloeden op de metabolisme (influences on metabolic rate) .................................................... 33
Chapter 41: Chemical signals in animals ............................................................................................... 35
41.1 Hormones and other signaling molecules bind to target receptros, triggering specific response
pathways ........................................................................................................................................... 35
Intercellulaire communicatie (intercellular communication) ...................................................... 35
Klassen van lokale regulatoren (classes of local regulators) ........................................................ 36
Klassen van hormonen (classes of hormones) ............................................................................. 36
Respons voor water oplosbare hormonen (response pathway for water soluble hormones) ..... 36
Respons voor lipide oplosbare hormonen (response pathway for lipid soluble hormones) ...... 36
41.2 Feedback regulation and coordination with the nervous system are common in hormone
pathways ........................................................................................................................................... 37
Feedback regulatie (feedback regulation) .................................................................................... 38
Gewervelde (vertebrates) ............................................................................................................. 38
, Posterior hypofyse hormonen (posterior pituitary hormones) ................................................... 38
Anterior hypofyse hormonen (anterior pituitary hormones) ...................................................... 38
Schildklierregulatie; een hormonale cascade-route (thyroid regulation; a hormone cascade
pathway) ....................................................................................................................................... 39
Groeihormoon (GH = growth hormone) ....................................................................................... 39
Chapter 42: Animal Digestive Systems .................................................................................................. 40
42.1 An animal’s diet must supply chemical energy, organic building blocks, and essential nutrients
........................................................................................................................................................... 40
Essentiële voedingsstoffen (essential nutrients) .......................................................................... 40
Dieet tekortkomingen (dietary deficiencies) ................................................................................ 41
Ondervoeding (undernourishment) .............................................................................................. 42
42.2 Food processing involves ingestion, digestion, absorption, and elimination ........................... 42
Spijsverteringscompartimenten (digestive compartments)......................................................... 42
Intracellulaire vertering (intracellular digestion) ......................................................................... 42
Extracellulaire vertering (extracellular digestion) ........................................................................ 42
42.3 Organs specialized for sequential stages of food processing form the mammalian digestive
system ............................................................................................................................................... 43
De mondholte, keelholte en slokdarm (the oral cavity, pharynx and esophagus) ...................... 43
Spijsvertering in de maag (digestion in the stomach) .................................................................. 44
Chemische vertering in de maag (chemical digestion in the stomach) ....................................... 44
Maag dynamiek (stomach dynamics) ........................................................................................... 45
Spijsvertering in de dunne darm (digestion in the small intestine) ............................................. 46
Absorptie in de dunne darm (absorption in the small intestine) .................................................. 46
Verwerking in de dikke darm (processing in the large intestine).................................................. 47
42.4 Evolutionary adaptations of vertebrate digestive systems correlate with diet ........................ 47
Tandheelkundige aanpassingen (dental adaptations) ................................................................. 47
Maag- en darmaanpassingen (stomach and intestinal adaptations) ............................................ 47
Mutualistische aanpassingen (mutualistic adaptations) .............................................................. 47
42.5 Feedback circuits regulate digestion, energy storage, and appetite ........................................ 48
Regulatie van de spijsvertering (regulation of digestion) ............................................................ 48
Regulering van energieopslag (regulation of energy storage) ..................................................... 48
Glucose homeostase (glucose homeostasis) ................................................................................ 48
Diabetes mellitus ........................................................................................................................... 49
Regulering van eetlust en consumptie (regulation of appetite and consumption)..................... 49
