Vulnerability and the future of families with children in Europe: Nine questions and corresponding answers

1 What will be the most important topics for the future of families in Europe? Before starting analyses of the future(s) of families in Europe, it is highly relevant to identify the most important aspect(s) of future family life development. For this reason expert discussions organised in a stakeholder workshop were conducted. Stakeholders came from different institutions, including both governmental and non-governmental organisations. The present chapter gives a synthesis of the thoughts debated in this workshop.3 1.1 Vulnerability and the focus on the child The two most prominent issues discussed were vulnerable families and child well-being or family well-being from a child’s perspective. First of all, the discussions included numerous references to various types of disadvantaged families. These are families who face difficulties in everyday life, and who are hindered from fully participating in society. These disadvantaged families are diverse: they may face problems related to poverty, migration, ethnicity (such as that of the Roma), culture or sexual orientation (e.g., same-sex couples). Families living in poverty are disadvantaged because their lack of financial resources may deprive them of fundamental human rights, such as the ability to maintain normal housing conditions or their children’s participation in education. Families of migrants can be disadvantaged, especially those who come from a different cultural environment, because they may be socially excluded or have insufficient social contacts. In addition, migrant workers are more susceptible than local workers to losing their job when a firm is downsizing. Members of disadvantaged families have reduced chances of finding a job. Same-sex couples are stigmatised and thus disadvantaged. The term vulnerability allows to subsume all these kinds of families since “being vulnerable” refers to a situation with an increased risk of becoming disadvantaged. For instance, a family in which the adults are unemployed is vulnerable because long-term unemployment can put the family at risk of poverty. Looking at vulnerability is crucial because risks may turn into reality in the future and the number of disadvantaged families may increase. Thus, vulnerability means a potential future disadvantage. Throughout this book and in general discussions, vulnerability often refers to those who are at risk of being disadvantaged as well as those who are already disadvantaged (as current disadvantages may be prolonged in the future). From a medium- to long-term forward-looking perspective, a crucial problem that vulnerable families face is the reproduction of vulnerability within families. This problem refers to the fact that children raised in disadvantaged families as adults often start families of their own that are fighting against their vulnerability. 3 This chapter summarises Philipov et al. (2014). Vulnerability and the Future of Families with Children in Europe 15 Children living in poor families may be deprived of an adequate education because the parents are unable to provide them with the necessary resources. Because of their family’s low income, the children may need to start working earlier in life. Thus, they become accustomed to poverty in their youth, and when they reach the age of young adulthood, they might maintain a style of living that corresponds to a culture of poverty; i.e. their aspirations in life will be influenced by poverty rather than by more conventional modes of living. Families of immigrants who are socially excluded may continue to live in closed social groups. They are likely to have problems integrating into the local society. The reasons for social exclusion might include adherence to traditional customs from the place of origin which are not in alignment with those of the culture of the native population. For example, migrant families may follow the male-breadwinner model, and the women in the family may not invest in continuing education or engage in the labour market. The gender roles associated with these models may be reproduced in the children of such families as well. In short, poverty frequently reproduces poverty, and social exclusion frequently reproduces social exclusion. This reproduction continues across generations: younger generations who grow up under the restrictions imposed by vulnerability eventually replace their parents’ generation. Without external support, these families may be unable to overcome their disadvantages, which may include poverty, social exclusion, or relative deprivation. In the decades to come, such a cycle might undermine policies aimed at reducing poverty and fighting social exclusion. Therefore, in a forward-looking perspective it is important to consider how this vicious cycle can be broken. It may be possible to do so in the medium to long run, and most likely with the change of generations, as the subsequent generation may prefer a set of norms and family relationships that differ from those they grew up with. This explicitly refers to children, their well-being and their future chances. Child-related issues and the position of the child in the family were most frequently mentioned during the workshop. Topics comprised, among others, the relationship between parents and child(ren), childcare, education, child participation, and child protection. For instance, discussants considered living with both parents to be a right of the child. Traditional gender stereotypes frequently favour the mother over the father. Thus, the father’s participation in the child’s life may be hindered. This is most evident after divorce, when custody arrangements are made. Furthermore, parent–child relationships will become more diverse as new family constellations become more common. This diversification requires flexible policy arrangements. Flexibility was also essential in discussions about childcare and the existing diversity of care arrangements. Concerns raised in this respect involved the quality of care (and carers), the availability of care incl. flexible scheduling (24-hour-a-day availability) as well as the possibilities of public childcare, neighbourhood-organised care and child-minders. Also related to childrearing and childcare—but maybe less thoroughly recognised in family policy—are issues of education. Education 16 FamiliesAndSocieties plays a crucial role in child development. Concerns raised during discussions were similar to those regarding childcare, mentioning the quality of education (incl. those of teachers), access to contemporary methods of education (incl. information technology), and access to schools for children living in remote regions. Regarding child participation, experts emphasised that the children should be heard themselves. They have their own opinions and preferences that should be respected by parents and also influence decision-making. Finally, child protection includes the relationship between parents and child(ren) but also goes well beyond it. It comprises issues related to domestic violence against children, child abuse and bullying as well as child exploitation. Although these forms of violence are legally regulated and sanctioned in European countries, they nonetheless persist and can lead to appalling physical and moral injustices. 1.2 The necessity of the inclusion of all family forms and family mainstreaming Considering the diversity of potentially vulnerable families, two important aspects with regard to policy development have to be emphasised: the inclusion of all family forms in family policies and the strategy of family mainstreaming. Experts suggested that policies will be less effective if they focus mainly on a typical family form and thus disregard the broader spectrum of new family arrangements. It was expected that new living arrangements such as unmarried cohabitation, single parents and same-sex couples will become more frequent in the future than they are today. Therefore, these families will need more policy support, and appropriate policy adjustments will become increasingly necessary. It was also anticipated that some traditional family-related practices and stereotypes will give way to modern family relationships built on increased gender equality and mutual respect. Such a transition requires special attention. The changing position of the father in the family may raise specific needs for new policy arrangements. Consequently, the impact of existing policies on families has to be analysed. A broad circle of policies impacts on the well-being of the family as a union and of the single individuals building it. It is therefore a topic that has to be mainstreamed across diverse policies. Family mainstreaming encompasses the main activities and features of a family, which include caring and support, as well as affiliation with and affection for family members. In addition, the stakeholders frequently discussed issues of personal autonomy and family relations. Individual personal autonomy is a value that has become widespread among Europeans, and in families it is associated with the transition from a traditional single-breadwinner family model to a more egalitarian division of labour within the family and at work. The experts proposed some ideas that may appear petty, such as the suggestion that couples have two separate bank accounts as well as a joint one. However, it is characteristic of such courses of action for ascertaining equality, like gender mainstreaming, that such minor details can be Vulnerability and the Future of Families with Children in Europe 17 crucial in securing the personal autonomy of each family member. In principle, gender mainstreaming and family mainstreaming should be separated from each other. Nevertheless, both have to be considered together sometimes. 1.3 New gender roles and the reconciliation of professional and private lives Gender roles and work–family reconciliation are topics vividly discussed by scholars and policy-makers. Regarding new gender roles, stakeholders noted that females have started a transition which is still underway today. In the future, the men may be the ones to change. Stakeholders emphasised the importance of stressing the role of the father in the family in light of the transition many families are making from a traditional single-breadwinner model to one in which both partners work. Men have to find their place in the home and re-define themselves as fathers. Fathers must develop their own approach to parenting (and they must be permitted to do so by the mothers). The share of men who take paternity leave is increasing. After separation