Research Methodology (J.
Vennix)
Summary Stephanie de Koning
Chapter 1 – The Origins of Science
Until the 19th century scientific activities were classified under two headings: Natural philosophy
(science of nature: physics, chemistry, astronomy and biology) and Natural History (study of
organisms: zoology & botany). Now we have many sorts of science: Beta, Gamma, Alpha, Social,
Behavioral etc.
Management science is also known as Operational research (UK) or Operations research (USA). It is
the discipline of using scientific re-modelling to improve any organization’s ability to enact rational,
meaningful business management decisions. It is much narrower and much more mathematical than
Management Studies.
1.1 Learning and knowing in everyday life and in science
Knowing and learning are two interrelated concepts. In order to survive, all living creatures are
capable of learning, especially human beings, who have a vast potential for learning.
We learn from experiences and reasoning, however in general, people are not clear thinkers: clear
and logical thinking as well as argumentation is for most people not given naturally at birth.
Debating is often not a great way to learn, because the main interest (especially when spectators are
involved) is to be right, or to save your face. Especially when emotions run high, attacks have
counterattacks, and no one is interested in finding the actual truth (for instance in TV debates).
Apart from our reasoning abilities, in order to be able to learn, one should be able to consult all
relevant information before forming an opinion on a topic. This is difficult because there is just too
much information out there. Secondly, it is difficult because humans suffer of ‘selective perception’.
This means we are often influenced to perceive things in our own advantage.
Another thing we humans suffer from, is ‘confirmation bias’, which is the selective collection of
evidence that supports one’s point of view and discarding information which could refute one’s
opinion. More specifically, information that is contrary to our believes is scrutinized more critically
than information that is consistent with our beliefs. Information processing is therefore almost never
neutral.
When it comes to learning from experience, there is also something like ‘explaining things away’ or
‘rationalizing’ after the fact. People seem to be very good at coming up with ad hoc explanations
when things do not work out as they expected.
Learning can get even more complicated when we have to do with self-fulfilling prophecies, which is
a term for situations in which a person’s expectation leads to behavior that this actually becomes
reality.
All in all, scientific learning has changed a lot over time. Researchers had to learn how to learn, which
is quite a remarkable accomplishment. Science is:
- a process of learning by trial and error
, - It is a cumulative effort where scientist build up on each other’s work or correcting it
- Progress can be slow but also has sudden breakthroughs
- Progress can be powerfully halted by preconceived ideas
- It shows a number of core concepts of science (induction, deduction, model, theory, law) in
action, as dealt with by the greatest minds in philosophy and science
- Its development has changed into something that is now called the scientific method
Typical characteristics of philosophers and scientists
- Curiosity
- Skepticism
- Perseverance
- Thinking
- Creativity
- Independent thinkers
- Critical thinkers
1.2 Ancient Greece as the cradle of western science
Every old civilization had its own body of knowledge, which is handed over from one generation to
the other. Greeks have added a lot to the western body of science, which is later used as universal.
This was mainly because they were the first ones that tried to innovate the knowledge rather than
just believing it must be from the gods or magic.
Plato and Aristotle have added a significant amount of knowledge within various fields of science.
Why the Greek civilization? together with expressing explanations about the world, they also
introduced a tradition of critique.
Chapter 2 – The scientific method
2.1.1. Deduction
Deductive logic is a form of argument, which works from the universal (general) to the individual
(specific).
Syllogism (by Aristotle) is a form of argument which consists of 2 premises and 1 conclusion:
- All humans are mortal (P1)
- X is a human (P2)
- X is mortal (C)
The truth of the conclusion depends heavily on the truth of the premises: they should be true for the
conclusion to be true. So you have to make a clear distinction between a valid argument and a true
conclusion.
Different types of deductive arguments are:
- Modus ponens (mode that affirms)
- Fallacious argument: Non Sequitur (affirming the consequent) or (denying the antecedent)
- Modus tollens (mode that denies)
See page 26 & 27 for detailed examples!
, Deductive sciences:
Deduction as a way of thinking is important in almost every branch of science, but no science is
completely deductive. Mathematics and logic do, because their point of departure is not an empirical
phenomenon but are mostly axioms (or postulates): they do not need a certain proof to be accepted
as true; for instance, Geometry (starts from certain axioms). This is why this is called:
Axiomatic-deductive science
Attempts to apply this way of science onto other branches of science, but skepticisms among
philosophers that do not have confidence in the sensory perception as the source of our knowledge,
makes this rather hard.
Concept of bounded rationality States that humans can only process a limited amount of
information, which makes full rationality virtually impossible.
2.1.2. Induction
Inductive logic in methodological terms means going from the specific to the general. > Observing a
set of empirical phenomena to a general statement.
Distinction needs to be made:
Complete induction: studied all objects and concluded or made a statement. The knowledge based
on this, is quite certain, however it does probably not add much to the knowledge.
Incomplete induction: studied a number of objects and come to a more general conclusion. This can
lead to new knowledge but is also more controversial.
The induction problem = new knowledge is added but we can not be sure that the conclusion is true.
Inductive strategy of knowledge acquisition:
A. All facts are observed and recorded without selection or guesses as to their relative
importance
B. There facts are analyzed, compared and classified, without using hypothesis
C. From this analysis, generalizations are inductively drawn as to the relations between
them
D. These generalizations are subjected to further testing
Inductive sciences
Where deductive science relies heavily on logic and argument, inductive sciences rely on observation
of empirical phenomena. While observing, the researcher tries to find patterns or regularities.
Rational comprehensive approach surfacing of values, then formulate objectives, next identify
policy options to accomplish these objectives, and then select the ‘best’ option to be implemented.
Frank or unprejudiced observation another induction problem, that human observation is
influenced in all sorts of (unconscious) ways.
Vennix)
Summary Stephanie de Koning
Chapter 1 – The Origins of Science
Until the 19th century scientific activities were classified under two headings: Natural philosophy
(science of nature: physics, chemistry, astronomy and biology) and Natural History (study of
organisms: zoology & botany). Now we have many sorts of science: Beta, Gamma, Alpha, Social,
Behavioral etc.
Management science is also known as Operational research (UK) or Operations research (USA). It is
the discipline of using scientific re-modelling to improve any organization’s ability to enact rational,
meaningful business management decisions. It is much narrower and much more mathematical than
Management Studies.
1.1 Learning and knowing in everyday life and in science
Knowing and learning are two interrelated concepts. In order to survive, all living creatures are
capable of learning, especially human beings, who have a vast potential for learning.
We learn from experiences and reasoning, however in general, people are not clear thinkers: clear
and logical thinking as well as argumentation is for most people not given naturally at birth.
Debating is often not a great way to learn, because the main interest (especially when spectators are
involved) is to be right, or to save your face. Especially when emotions run high, attacks have
counterattacks, and no one is interested in finding the actual truth (for instance in TV debates).
Apart from our reasoning abilities, in order to be able to learn, one should be able to consult all
relevant information before forming an opinion on a topic. This is difficult because there is just too
much information out there. Secondly, it is difficult because humans suffer of ‘selective perception’.
This means we are often influenced to perceive things in our own advantage.
Another thing we humans suffer from, is ‘confirmation bias’, which is the selective collection of
evidence that supports one’s point of view and discarding information which could refute one’s
opinion. More specifically, information that is contrary to our believes is scrutinized more critically
than information that is consistent with our beliefs. Information processing is therefore almost never
neutral.
When it comes to learning from experience, there is also something like ‘explaining things away’ or
‘rationalizing’ after the fact. People seem to be very good at coming up with ad hoc explanations
when things do not work out as they expected.
Learning can get even more complicated when we have to do with self-fulfilling prophecies, which is
a term for situations in which a person’s expectation leads to behavior that this actually becomes
reality.
All in all, scientific learning has changed a lot over time. Researchers had to learn how to learn, which
is quite a remarkable accomplishment. Science is:
- a process of learning by trial and error
, - It is a cumulative effort where scientist build up on each other’s work or correcting it
- Progress can be slow but also has sudden breakthroughs
- Progress can be powerfully halted by preconceived ideas
- It shows a number of core concepts of science (induction, deduction, model, theory, law) in
action, as dealt with by the greatest minds in philosophy and science
- Its development has changed into something that is now called the scientific method
Typical characteristics of philosophers and scientists
- Curiosity
- Skepticism
- Perseverance
- Thinking
- Creativity
- Independent thinkers
- Critical thinkers
1.2 Ancient Greece as the cradle of western science
Every old civilization had its own body of knowledge, which is handed over from one generation to
the other. Greeks have added a lot to the western body of science, which is later used as universal.
This was mainly because they were the first ones that tried to innovate the knowledge rather than
just believing it must be from the gods or magic.
Plato and Aristotle have added a significant amount of knowledge within various fields of science.
Why the Greek civilization? together with expressing explanations about the world, they also
introduced a tradition of critique.
Chapter 2 – The scientific method
2.1.1. Deduction
Deductive logic is a form of argument, which works from the universal (general) to the individual
(specific).
Syllogism (by Aristotle) is a form of argument which consists of 2 premises and 1 conclusion:
- All humans are mortal (P1)
- X is a human (P2)
- X is mortal (C)
The truth of the conclusion depends heavily on the truth of the premises: they should be true for the
conclusion to be true. So you have to make a clear distinction between a valid argument and a true
conclusion.
Different types of deductive arguments are:
- Modus ponens (mode that affirms)
- Fallacious argument: Non Sequitur (affirming the consequent) or (denying the antecedent)
- Modus tollens (mode that denies)
See page 26 & 27 for detailed examples!
, Deductive sciences:
Deduction as a way of thinking is important in almost every branch of science, but no science is
completely deductive. Mathematics and logic do, because their point of departure is not an empirical
phenomenon but are mostly axioms (or postulates): they do not need a certain proof to be accepted
as true; for instance, Geometry (starts from certain axioms). This is why this is called:
Axiomatic-deductive science
Attempts to apply this way of science onto other branches of science, but skepticisms among
philosophers that do not have confidence in the sensory perception as the source of our knowledge,
makes this rather hard.
Concept of bounded rationality States that humans can only process a limited amount of
information, which makes full rationality virtually impossible.
2.1.2. Induction
Inductive logic in methodological terms means going from the specific to the general. > Observing a
set of empirical phenomena to a general statement.
Distinction needs to be made:
Complete induction: studied all objects and concluded or made a statement. The knowledge based
on this, is quite certain, however it does probably not add much to the knowledge.
Incomplete induction: studied a number of objects and come to a more general conclusion. This can
lead to new knowledge but is also more controversial.
The induction problem = new knowledge is added but we can not be sure that the conclusion is true.
Inductive strategy of knowledge acquisition:
A. All facts are observed and recorded without selection or guesses as to their relative
importance
B. There facts are analyzed, compared and classified, without using hypothesis
C. From this analysis, generalizations are inductively drawn as to the relations between
them
D. These generalizations are subjected to further testing
Inductive sciences
Where deductive science relies heavily on logic and argument, inductive sciences rely on observation
of empirical phenomena. While observing, the researcher tries to find patterns or regularities.
Rational comprehensive approach surfacing of values, then formulate objectives, next identify
policy options to accomplish these objectives, and then select the ‘best’ option to be implemented.
Frank or unprejudiced observation another induction problem, that human observation is
influenced in all sorts of (unconscious) ways.
