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social speech - One of three stages of children's use of language identified by Vygotsky that is used primarily for communicative purposes in which thought and language have separate functions; contrast with egocentric speech and inner speech. Why testing accommodations for students with disabilities are important- - help ensure that the results will be an accurate indication of student ability, enable most students to be tested, enable testing practices to be deemed fair to all students Standardized tests are often used for? - entry or placemet in specific programs and to diagnose learning problems or strengths Where does the school accountability movement come from? - The public loss of confidence in education Reliability- - relates to the accuracy with which skills & knowledge are measured Valid reasons for assessing students- - inform decision makers about student behaviors, monitor student progress toward a goal, screen students for specific purposes Most critical problem that can result from standardized achievement test accommodation- - accommodation changes the nature of the measurement Fair & ethical testing procedures- - research scores from individual minority populations to determine whether scores are comparable, provide non-English-speaking students the opportunity to take mathematics & science exams in their native language, grade essays without regard for who wrote Misuses of state-mandated standardized achievement test scores- - assign students to remedial or accelerated tracks based solely on their scores, compute glass grades using standardized test scores, compare scores on the exam to in-class quizzesCriterion-Referenced Tests- - assessments that rate how thoroughly students have mastered specific skills or areas of knowledge Norm-Referenced Tests- - assessments that compare the performance of one student against the performance of others Common benefit of standardized achievement tests- - scores are comparable across populations Formative Assessment- - continuous feedback to the teacher, test smaller units, monitor progress, informal Summative Assessment- - final evaluations of students' achievement of an objective Constructed Response- - -requires student to supply rather than to select the answer -difficulty scoring, requires students to support an argument with multiple lines of reasoning, depends on writing ability Primary purpose of the Woodcock Reading Mastery Exam(WRM)- - achievement Eraut's major criticism of using reflection - sometimes decision need to be made quickly, and there is not time for reflection Reflectivity- - -tendency to analyze oneself and one's own thoughts -help individuals self-correct behaviors and ideas, empower learners to take ownership of ideas Foreclosure- - an adolescent's premature establishment of an identity based on parental choices, not on his or her own Identity Diffusion- - inability to develop a clear direction or sense of self; adolescent has few commitments to goals and values, and seems apathetic about finding an identity; if an identity crisis has been experienced, it has not been resolvedMoratorium- - adolescent experiments with goals and values by abandoning some of those set by parents and society; no definite commitments have been made to occupations or ideologies; the adolescent is in the midst of an identity crisis Identity Achievement- - adolescent establishes an identity in which clear decisions about occupations and ideologies have been consciously made Birth - Age 2- - body quadruples in weight and the brain triples in weight, neurons branch & grow into dense connective networks between the brain & the rest of the body Ages 2 - 6- - child's body grows much more slowly relative to other periods of life; the brain continues to develop fast than any other part of the body, up to 90% of its adult weight; Ages 7 - 11- - growth that occurs during these years usually proceeds from the extremities to the torso & may be uneven, the child's body grows much more slowly relative to other periods of life. Ages 12 - 18- - increased in hormonal levels occur, resulting in a growth spurt, males generally become taller than females and develop deeper voices and characteristic patterns of facial and body hair; increased strength and heart and lung capacity give the child endurance Description of the way a child goes up & down steps at the end of early childhood- - takes coordinated, even steps, steps once on each step, alternating feet When most girls begin their growth spurt - most girls begin their growth spurt by the start of 5th grade Puberty in girls - almost all girls begin menstruation by age 13, most girls reach their adult stature by age 16 Typical of 5 year olds - have a sense of pride in their accomplishments & enjoy demonstrating their achievementsLearning Disability - has difficulty with oral language (e.g., listening, speaking, and understanding); reading (e.g., decoding, comprehension); written language (e.g., spelling, written expression); mathematics (e.g., computation, problem solving); also may have difficulties