Anatomy & Physiology 1 Final Exam Review
Games and activities
Abduction - -Movement away from the midline of the body
- Absolute refractory period - -The minimum length of time after an
action potential during which another action potential cannot begin.
- Action Potential - -Step 1: Resting Potential
Sodium and potassium channels are closed. Na+ rush into the cell; K+ are
concentrated inside the cell. Potential difference: -85 mV.
Step 2: Depolarization
Sodium channels open in response to a stimulus. Na+ rush into the cell
according to the dictates of diffusion. Final potential difference +30 mV.
Step 3: Repolarization
Na+ channels close and K+ channels open. K+ rush out of the cell
according to the dictates of diffusion. Potential difference: slightly below -
85 mV.
Step 4: Resting Conditions Re-established
Na+ and K+ channels are closed. Sodium-potassium exchange pump
moves Na+ out and K+ in. Resting potential difference: -85 mV.
*Hyperpolarization*
One mechanism for inhibition of the firing of the post-synaptic neuron is to
cause hyperpolarization like that which follows the pulse of an action
potential. This would raise the threshold for firing of the neuron.
- Action potentials - -The nerve cells which are used for the perception
of external events will, upon being excited by the proper stimulus,
transmit an action potential down their axons. When the electrical signal
reaches the axon terminal bundle, it interacts with structures called
synaptic knobs. It stimulates an influx of calcium (Ca2+) through voltage-
gated Ca2+ gates.
- Active Transport - -the movement of ions or molecules across a cell
membrane into a region of higher concentration, assisted by enzymes and
requiring energy.
*Na+/K+ pump*
- Adduction - -Movement toward the midline of the body
, - Adipose loose Connective Tissue - -Function:
-Store triglycerides in a large central area.
-Serves as an energy reserve
Appearance:
- Adipocytes
-Nucleus (dark purple dots)
-Plasma membrane (light purple rings surrounding the cell)
-Cytoplasm (light purple spaces in between cells)
Location:
-Subcutaneous layer of the skin.
-Around heart and kidneys.
- Anatomical Features of the Spinal Cord and Brain - -*Brain:*
Frontal Lobe: *Cognitive skills.* "Control panel" of our personality and our
ability to communicate.
Partial Lobe: *Sensation and perception* and the other is concerned with
integrating sensory input, primarily with the visual system.
Occipital Lobe: *Visual perception*
Temporal Lobe: *Auditory perception*, such as hearing, and holds the
primary auditory cortex.
*Cerebrum:*
-*Cerebral lobe
-The principal and most anterior part of the brain in vertebrates, located in
the front area of the skull and consisting of two hemispheres, left and
right, separated by a fissure.
-It is responsible for the integration of complex sensory and neural
functions and the initiation and coordination of voluntary activity in the
body.
*Cerebellum: *
-Cerebral Lobe
- Located in the inferior/posterior cranial fossa.
- Controls: Voluntary muscular activities.
*Brainstem:*
- Consists of: Midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata (which is the most
vital part of the brain controlling heart and blood vessels, etc.)
*Diencephalon*
-Cerebral lobe
- Located in the middle region and is superior to the brain stem.
,- Consists of: thalamus, epithalamus, and the hypothalamus.
- Controls: ANS, body temp., thirst and hunger.
- Anatomy of the Automatic Nervous System (ANS) - -*Regulates the
involuntary vital functions. (Heart and smooth muscle activities)*
*Sensory neurons:*
-Deal with receptors in visceral organs. Conveyi nformation from ANS
receptors to the CNS.
-Monitor internal conditions such as blood CO2 or stretching in the walls of
organs or vlood vessels.
*Motor neurons*: conduct nerve impulses from the CNS to help regulate
smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands.
For example: Pupil diameter, heart rate changes, dilation and constriction
of blood vessels.
Autonomic motor pathways consists of *2 motor neurons:*
- *Preganglionic neuron*: has its cell body in the CNS and its axon travels
via a cranial or spinal nerve*.
- *Postganglionic neuron*: cell body is located in an automatic ganglion in
the PNS and its axon travels to the effector (muscle/gland)
The motor neuron portion of the ANS is divided into 2 parts:
*Sympathetic division and Parasympathetic division*
*Hypothalumus *
- Regulates the balance between the sympathetic and parasympathetic
activities. Works in opposite directions. *Either an increase or decrease in
sympathetic tone in certain structures, which will produce an opposite
effect.*
- Anatomy of the Automatic Nervous System (ANS): Parasympathetic - -
1. Conservation and restoration - daily body upkeep and maintaining
homeostasis
2. Rest-and-digest - the following physiological responses occur with
parasympathetic stimulation:
1. Cardiac - Decreases heart rate. Lowers BP
2. Blood Vessels - Vasoconstricts blood vessels to the liver, muscles and
dilates blood vessels to digestive organs.
3. Lungs - Constricts airway and decreases respiration.
, 4. GI - increases digestion and relaxes sphincter muscles.
5. Urinary - Bladder constricts.
6. Liver - Glucose is converted to glycogen which decreases blood glucose
levels.
7. Eyes - Pupils constrict
8. Errector pili muscle - Relaxes hair on the skin.
- Anatomy of the Automatic Nervous System (ANS): Sympathetic - -1.
Physical or emotional stress this system represents the "alert system" aka
the "fight or flight" mechanism. Physical exertion, fear, embarrassment,
anger, excitement, anxiety all stimulate the sympathetic division.
2. Fight-or-flight-response - is a release of hormones from the adrenal
medulla which causes the following physiological responses when there is
sympathetic stimulation:
1. Cardiac - Increased heart rate
2. Blood Vessels - Vasodilates blood vessels to liver, skeletal and cardiac
muscles and constricts blood vessels to organs in the digestive region
3. Lungs - Airways dilate/respiration increases
4. Gastrointestinal - Decreases digestion and constricts the sphincter
5. Urinary - Relaxes bladder
6. Liver - Glycogen is broken down into glucose which increases blood
glucose levels.
7. Eyes - Pupils dilate
8. Errector Pili Muscles - Contract and causes hair to stand up.
- Anatomy of the Ear - -*Outer ear*
-*Auricle* (cartilage covered by skin placed on opposite sides of the head)
-*Auditory canal* (also called the ear canal)
eardrum outer layer (also called the Tympanic membrane)
Function: The outer part of the ear *collects sound*. Sound travels through
the auricle and the auditory canal, a short tube that ends at the eardrum.
*Middle ear*
-*Eardrum*
Games and activities
Abduction - -Movement away from the midline of the body
- Absolute refractory period - -The minimum length of time after an
action potential during which another action potential cannot begin.
- Action Potential - -Step 1: Resting Potential
Sodium and potassium channels are closed. Na+ rush into the cell; K+ are
concentrated inside the cell. Potential difference: -85 mV.
Step 2: Depolarization
Sodium channels open in response to a stimulus. Na+ rush into the cell
according to the dictates of diffusion. Final potential difference +30 mV.
Step 3: Repolarization
Na+ channels close and K+ channels open. K+ rush out of the cell
according to the dictates of diffusion. Potential difference: slightly below -
85 mV.
Step 4: Resting Conditions Re-established
Na+ and K+ channels are closed. Sodium-potassium exchange pump
moves Na+ out and K+ in. Resting potential difference: -85 mV.
*Hyperpolarization*
One mechanism for inhibition of the firing of the post-synaptic neuron is to
cause hyperpolarization like that which follows the pulse of an action
potential. This would raise the threshold for firing of the neuron.
- Action potentials - -The nerve cells which are used for the perception
of external events will, upon being excited by the proper stimulus,
transmit an action potential down their axons. When the electrical signal
reaches the axon terminal bundle, it interacts with structures called
synaptic knobs. It stimulates an influx of calcium (Ca2+) through voltage-
gated Ca2+ gates.
- Active Transport - -the movement of ions or molecules across a cell
membrane into a region of higher concentration, assisted by enzymes and
requiring energy.
*Na+/K+ pump*
- Adduction - -Movement toward the midline of the body
, - Adipose loose Connective Tissue - -Function:
-Store triglycerides in a large central area.
-Serves as an energy reserve
Appearance:
- Adipocytes
-Nucleus (dark purple dots)
-Plasma membrane (light purple rings surrounding the cell)
-Cytoplasm (light purple spaces in between cells)
Location:
-Subcutaneous layer of the skin.
-Around heart and kidneys.
- Anatomical Features of the Spinal Cord and Brain - -*Brain:*
Frontal Lobe: *Cognitive skills.* "Control panel" of our personality and our
ability to communicate.
Partial Lobe: *Sensation and perception* and the other is concerned with
integrating sensory input, primarily with the visual system.
Occipital Lobe: *Visual perception*
Temporal Lobe: *Auditory perception*, such as hearing, and holds the
primary auditory cortex.
*Cerebrum:*
-*Cerebral lobe
-The principal and most anterior part of the brain in vertebrates, located in
the front area of the skull and consisting of two hemispheres, left and
right, separated by a fissure.
-It is responsible for the integration of complex sensory and neural
functions and the initiation and coordination of voluntary activity in the
body.
*Cerebellum: *
-Cerebral Lobe
- Located in the inferior/posterior cranial fossa.
- Controls: Voluntary muscular activities.
*Brainstem:*
- Consists of: Midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata (which is the most
vital part of the brain controlling heart and blood vessels, etc.)
*Diencephalon*
-Cerebral lobe
- Located in the middle region and is superior to the brain stem.
,- Consists of: thalamus, epithalamus, and the hypothalamus.
- Controls: ANS, body temp., thirst and hunger.
- Anatomy of the Automatic Nervous System (ANS) - -*Regulates the
involuntary vital functions. (Heart and smooth muscle activities)*
*Sensory neurons:*
-Deal with receptors in visceral organs. Conveyi nformation from ANS
receptors to the CNS.
-Monitor internal conditions such as blood CO2 or stretching in the walls of
organs or vlood vessels.
*Motor neurons*: conduct nerve impulses from the CNS to help regulate
smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands.
For example: Pupil diameter, heart rate changes, dilation and constriction
of blood vessels.
Autonomic motor pathways consists of *2 motor neurons:*
- *Preganglionic neuron*: has its cell body in the CNS and its axon travels
via a cranial or spinal nerve*.
- *Postganglionic neuron*: cell body is located in an automatic ganglion in
the PNS and its axon travels to the effector (muscle/gland)
The motor neuron portion of the ANS is divided into 2 parts:
*Sympathetic division and Parasympathetic division*
*Hypothalumus *
- Regulates the balance between the sympathetic and parasympathetic
activities. Works in opposite directions. *Either an increase or decrease in
sympathetic tone in certain structures, which will produce an opposite
effect.*
- Anatomy of the Automatic Nervous System (ANS): Parasympathetic - -
1. Conservation and restoration - daily body upkeep and maintaining
homeostasis
2. Rest-and-digest - the following physiological responses occur with
parasympathetic stimulation:
1. Cardiac - Decreases heart rate. Lowers BP
2. Blood Vessels - Vasoconstricts blood vessels to the liver, muscles and
dilates blood vessels to digestive organs.
3. Lungs - Constricts airway and decreases respiration.
, 4. GI - increases digestion and relaxes sphincter muscles.
5. Urinary - Bladder constricts.
6. Liver - Glucose is converted to glycogen which decreases blood glucose
levels.
7. Eyes - Pupils constrict
8. Errector pili muscle - Relaxes hair on the skin.
- Anatomy of the Automatic Nervous System (ANS): Sympathetic - -1.
Physical or emotional stress this system represents the "alert system" aka
the "fight or flight" mechanism. Physical exertion, fear, embarrassment,
anger, excitement, anxiety all stimulate the sympathetic division.
2. Fight-or-flight-response - is a release of hormones from the adrenal
medulla which causes the following physiological responses when there is
sympathetic stimulation:
1. Cardiac - Increased heart rate
2. Blood Vessels - Vasodilates blood vessels to liver, skeletal and cardiac
muscles and constricts blood vessels to organs in the digestive region
3. Lungs - Airways dilate/respiration increases
4. Gastrointestinal - Decreases digestion and constricts the sphincter
5. Urinary - Relaxes bladder
6. Liver - Glycogen is broken down into glucose which increases blood
glucose levels.
7. Eyes - Pupils dilate
8. Errector Pili Muscles - Contract and causes hair to stand up.
- Anatomy of the Ear - -*Outer ear*
-*Auricle* (cartilage covered by skin placed on opposite sides of the head)
-*Auditory canal* (also called the ear canal)
eardrum outer layer (also called the Tympanic membrane)
Function: The outer part of the ear *collects sound*. Sound travels through
the auricle and the auditory canal, a short tube that ends at the eardrum.
*Middle ear*
-*Eardrum*
