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Engineering mathematics class notes

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Engineering mathematics involves the application of mathematical methods and techniques to solve complex engineering problems. It covers a range of topics, including calculus, differential equations, linear algebra, and probability. These concepts are essential for modeling and analyzing real-world systems in various engineering fields like civil, mechanical, electrical, and computer engineering. By using mathematical tools, engineers can predict outcomes, optimize designs, and improve efficiency. Engineering mathematics serves as the foundation for innovations and advancements in technology, making it a critical subject for engineering students and professionals.

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Institution
Course

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Notes on Mathematics - 1021

Peeyush Chandra, A. K. Lal, V. Raghavendra, G. Santhanam




1
Supported by a grant from MHRD

,2

,Contents

I Linear Algebra 7

1 Matrices 9
1.1 Definition of a Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.1.1 Special Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2 Operations on Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.1 Multiplication of Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.3 Some More Special Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3.1 Submatrix of a Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.3.1 Block Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.4 Matrices over Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

2 Linear System of Equations 19
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2 Definition and a Solution Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.2.1 A Solution Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3 Row Operations and Equivalent Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3.1 Gauss Elimination Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.4 Row Reduced Echelon Form of a Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.4.1 Gauss-Jordan Elimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.4.2 Elementary Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.5 Rank of a Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.6 Existence of Solution of Ax = b . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.6.1 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.6.2 Main Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.6.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.7 Invertible Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.7.1 Inverse of a Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.7.2 Equivalent conditions for Invertibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.7.3 Inverse and Gauss-Jordan Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.8 Determinant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.8.1 Adjoint of a Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.8.2 Cramer’s Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.9 Miscellaneous Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

3 Finite Dimensional Vector Spaces 49
3.1 Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.1.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.1.2 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

3

, 4 CONTENTS

3.1.3 Subspaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.1.4 Linear Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.2 Linear Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.3 Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.3.1 Important Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.4 Ordered Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

4 Linear Transformations 69
4.1 Definitions and Basic Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.2 Matrix of a linear transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.3 Rank-Nullity Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.4 Similarity of Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

5 Inner Product Spaces 87
5.1 Definition and Basic Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
5.2 Gram-Schmidt Orthogonalisation Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5.3 Orthogonal Projections and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5.3.1 Matrix of the Orthogonal Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

6 Eigenvalues, Eigenvectors and Diagonalization 107
6.1 Introduction and Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
6.2 diagonalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
6.3 Diagonalizable matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
6.4 Sylvester’s Law of Inertia and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121


II Ordinary Differential Equation 129

7 Differential Equations 131
7.1 Introduction and Preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
7.2 Separable Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
7.2.1 Equations Reducible to Separable Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
7.3 Exact Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
7.3.1 Integrating Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
7.4 Linear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
7.5 Miscellaneous Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
7.6 Initial Value Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
7.6.1 Orthogonal Trajectories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
7.7 Numerical Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

8 Second Order and Higher Order Equations 153
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
8.2 More on Second Order Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
8.2.1 Wronskian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
8.2.2 Method of Reduction of Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
8.3 Second Order equations with Constant Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
8.4 Non Homogeneous Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
8.5 Variation of Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
8.6 Higher Order Equations with Constant Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

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