Liberalism
Liberalism emerged in reaction to the rule of monarchies and aristocratic privilege in the early modern world. It reflected the
views of the educated middle classes who sought wider civil liberties. Liberalism was part of the Enlightenment (an 18 th
century intellectual movement that rejected traditional social, political and religious ideas + stressed the power of reason and
the importance of tolerance and freedom from tyranny.
John Locke is regarded as the ‘father’ of liberalism.
Core ideas
Individualis Liberals stress the importance of the individual over the claims of any social group. All individuals are
m unique and have equal worth – they should always be used as ‘ends’ and never merely as ‘means’. People
should not be treated as instruments to achieve a particular goal , but should be regarded as possessing
their own fundamental value.
An idea linked to the importance of individualism is tolerance ⇒ one of the natural rights that everyone
should have. Originally, this referred to tolerance to different religious beliefs but today it has been
extended to a wide range of views and practices (e.g. relaxed view of sexual matters)
Freedom or Freedom is the most important of all liberal values -object the way in which authoritarian governments
liberty claimed a right to take decisions on behalf of people and attempted to regulate their behaviour
However: freedom can never be absolute ⇒ must be exercised under the law in order to protect people
from interfering with each other’s rights
John Locke: “the end of law is not to abolish or restrain, but to preserve and enlarge freedom...where there
is no law, there is no freedom”
Liberty – utilitarianism
Jeremy Bentham maintained that each individual can decide what is in his/her own interests. He argued
that human actions are motivated mainly by a desire to pursue pleasure and avoid pain. Governments
should not prevent people from doing what they chose unless their actions threatens others’ ability to do
the same for themselves.
John Stuart Mill: negative freedom ⇒ individuals should only be subject to external restraint when their
actions potentially affect others, not when their actions affect only themselves (freedom from external
constraints – to be left alone)
However:
From the 19th century onwards many liberals found Mill’s concept of liberty too limited because it viewed
society as little more than a collection of independent atoms. Thinker T.H. Green argued that society was an
organic whole, in which people pursue the common good (altruism) as well as their own interests.
positive freedom ⇒ some individuals are insecure/ hesitant and may need enabling so that they can
exercise their individual talents. (limited intervention is needed)
The state: ‘a Liberals accept that the state is needed to avert disorder and to protect the vulnerable from exploitation.
necessary However, they mistrust power because they believe that human beings are essentially self-seeking so, may
evil’
use any position of power to pursue their own interests at the expense of others.
Lord Acton: “Power tends to corrupt and absolute powers corrupts absolutely”
Liberals argue for limited government, with checks and balances on the exercise of power. They support the
idea of constitutionalism (government in which power is distributed and limited by a system of laws) in
order to prevent a concentration of power ⇒ support devolution of political power from central
government to regional bodies (e.g. UK -Scottish Parliament/ Welsh and N. Ireland Assemblies)
+ favour a Bill of Rights which provides a clear statement of citizens’ rights and defines the relationship
between citizens and the state
Rationalism Rationalism is the belief that the world has a rational structure, and that this can be revealed through the
exercise of human reason and critical enquiry. Knowledge flows from reason rather than experience.
, Individuals should be free to exercise their judgement about their own interest without needing to be
guided by external authorities, such as the state or church leaders. The Enlightenment (18 th-19th century)
pushed back the boundaries of human understanding and liberated people from a blind faith in establishes
authority, tradition and superstition. Reason is linked to the idea of a progressive society.
Liberal accept that competition between individuals, groups and nations regrettably will produce conflicts,
but they favour the use of reasoned debate and discussion to resolve disputes. e.g. a neutral third party
would mediate between employers and trade unions, in an effort to avert costly legal action or strikes.
Equality and – Emphasize equality of opportunity ⇒ equality defined in terms of life opportunities, allowing people to
social justice rise or fall but only on the basis of personal differences
Liberal accept differing outcomes because people have different abilities and potential. They should be free
to reach that potential.
– Traditionally, liberalism is based on a belief in foundational equality ⇒ formal equality, individuals should
enjoy the same legal and political rights in society ensured by equality before the law and equal voting rights
in free and fair elections.
– Socialists criticize liberalism on the grounds that it does not tackle inequality because it is closely linked to
the capitalist idea of competition (socialists aim to achieve equality of outcome). However, classical liberals
believe that individuals with different talents should be rewarded differently. The resulting social inequality
is beneficial for society because it gives people an incentive to work hard and make the most of their abilities
⇒ meritocracy
Liberal Liberal democracy involves:
democracy free elections to give expression to the will of the people
limitations on the power of the state
respect for civil liberties and toleration of different viewpoints
Government should be based on the consent of the people ⇒ without this foundation, government lacks
legitimacy
Social contract: unofficial agreement shared by everyone in a society in which they give up some freedom in
return for security. It is explained by John Locke in his book Two Treatises of Government – he argued that
the people must freely give and renew their consent to be governed. They have a right of rebellion if the
government breaks the contract.
Modern Liberals support democracy because:
– it enables citizens to hold government to account
– extends popular participation + performs an educational function in society
– gives political voice to different groups and interests ⇒ promotes consensus + political stability
Classical Liberals feared democracy
– It may lead to the ‘tyranny of the majority’, suppressing minority rights or individual freedom
– may create a culture of dull conformism
Mill proposed to allocate more votes to the educated (plural voting) as a way of avoiding the influence of
the uneducated masses. (modern liberal did not support this)
Types of liberalism and differing views
Liberalism emerged in reaction to the rule of monarchies and aristocratic privilege in the early modern world. It reflected the
views of the educated middle classes who sought wider civil liberties. Liberalism was part of the Enlightenment (an 18 th
century intellectual movement that rejected traditional social, political and religious ideas + stressed the power of reason and
the importance of tolerance and freedom from tyranny.
John Locke is regarded as the ‘father’ of liberalism.
Core ideas
Individualis Liberals stress the importance of the individual over the claims of any social group. All individuals are
m unique and have equal worth – they should always be used as ‘ends’ and never merely as ‘means’. People
should not be treated as instruments to achieve a particular goal , but should be regarded as possessing
their own fundamental value.
An idea linked to the importance of individualism is tolerance ⇒ one of the natural rights that everyone
should have. Originally, this referred to tolerance to different religious beliefs but today it has been
extended to a wide range of views and practices (e.g. relaxed view of sexual matters)
Freedom or Freedom is the most important of all liberal values -object the way in which authoritarian governments
liberty claimed a right to take decisions on behalf of people and attempted to regulate their behaviour
However: freedom can never be absolute ⇒ must be exercised under the law in order to protect people
from interfering with each other’s rights
John Locke: “the end of law is not to abolish or restrain, but to preserve and enlarge freedom...where there
is no law, there is no freedom”
Liberty – utilitarianism
Jeremy Bentham maintained that each individual can decide what is in his/her own interests. He argued
that human actions are motivated mainly by a desire to pursue pleasure and avoid pain. Governments
should not prevent people from doing what they chose unless their actions threatens others’ ability to do
the same for themselves.
John Stuart Mill: negative freedom ⇒ individuals should only be subject to external restraint when their
actions potentially affect others, not when their actions affect only themselves (freedom from external
constraints – to be left alone)
However:
From the 19th century onwards many liberals found Mill’s concept of liberty too limited because it viewed
society as little more than a collection of independent atoms. Thinker T.H. Green argued that society was an
organic whole, in which people pursue the common good (altruism) as well as their own interests.
positive freedom ⇒ some individuals are insecure/ hesitant and may need enabling so that they can
exercise their individual talents. (limited intervention is needed)
The state: ‘a Liberals accept that the state is needed to avert disorder and to protect the vulnerable from exploitation.
necessary However, they mistrust power because they believe that human beings are essentially self-seeking so, may
evil’
use any position of power to pursue their own interests at the expense of others.
Lord Acton: “Power tends to corrupt and absolute powers corrupts absolutely”
Liberals argue for limited government, with checks and balances on the exercise of power. They support the
idea of constitutionalism (government in which power is distributed and limited by a system of laws) in
order to prevent a concentration of power ⇒ support devolution of political power from central
government to regional bodies (e.g. UK -Scottish Parliament/ Welsh and N. Ireland Assemblies)
+ favour a Bill of Rights which provides a clear statement of citizens’ rights and defines the relationship
between citizens and the state
Rationalism Rationalism is the belief that the world has a rational structure, and that this can be revealed through the
exercise of human reason and critical enquiry. Knowledge flows from reason rather than experience.
, Individuals should be free to exercise their judgement about their own interest without needing to be
guided by external authorities, such as the state or church leaders. The Enlightenment (18 th-19th century)
pushed back the boundaries of human understanding and liberated people from a blind faith in establishes
authority, tradition and superstition. Reason is linked to the idea of a progressive society.
Liberal accept that competition between individuals, groups and nations regrettably will produce conflicts,
but they favour the use of reasoned debate and discussion to resolve disputes. e.g. a neutral third party
would mediate between employers and trade unions, in an effort to avert costly legal action or strikes.
Equality and – Emphasize equality of opportunity ⇒ equality defined in terms of life opportunities, allowing people to
social justice rise or fall but only on the basis of personal differences
Liberal accept differing outcomes because people have different abilities and potential. They should be free
to reach that potential.
– Traditionally, liberalism is based on a belief in foundational equality ⇒ formal equality, individuals should
enjoy the same legal and political rights in society ensured by equality before the law and equal voting rights
in free and fair elections.
– Socialists criticize liberalism on the grounds that it does not tackle inequality because it is closely linked to
the capitalist idea of competition (socialists aim to achieve equality of outcome). However, classical liberals
believe that individuals with different talents should be rewarded differently. The resulting social inequality
is beneficial for society because it gives people an incentive to work hard and make the most of their abilities
⇒ meritocracy
Liberal Liberal democracy involves:
democracy free elections to give expression to the will of the people
limitations on the power of the state
respect for civil liberties and toleration of different viewpoints
Government should be based on the consent of the people ⇒ without this foundation, government lacks
legitimacy
Social contract: unofficial agreement shared by everyone in a society in which they give up some freedom in
return for security. It is explained by John Locke in his book Two Treatises of Government – he argued that
the people must freely give and renew their consent to be governed. They have a right of rebellion if the
government breaks the contract.
Modern Liberals support democracy because:
– it enables citizens to hold government to account
– extends popular participation + performs an educational function in society
– gives political voice to different groups and interests ⇒ promotes consensus + political stability
Classical Liberals feared democracy
– It may lead to the ‘tyranny of the majority’, suppressing minority rights or individual freedom
– may create a culture of dull conformism
Mill proposed to allocate more votes to the educated (plural voting) as a way of avoiding the influence of
the uneducated masses. (modern liberal did not support this)
Types of liberalism and differing views
