NSG 533 EXAM 1 WITH LATEST QUESTIONS AND 100% CORRECT ANSWERS ALREADY GRADED A+ ()

NSG 533 EXAM 1 WITH LATEST QUESTIONS AND 100% CORRECT ANSWERS ALREADY GRADED A+ (2024- 2025) 5 essential components of pathophysiology - ANS-1. Etiology 2. Epidemiology 3. Pathogenesis 4. Clinical Manifestations 5. Outcomes other terms for "unknown" etiology of disease - ANS-idiopathic and cryptogenic define autophagy - ANS-type 2 programmed cell death of "Eating of self" list five types of necrosis - ANS-1. liquefactive 2. coagulative 3. caseous 4. fat 5. gangrenous describe liquefactive necrosis - ANS-- dead cells transform into a viscous liquid (pus) - commonly the result of hypoxic injury to the CNS and in fungal/bacterial infections describe coagulative necrosis - ANS-- dead cells turn into opaque scar tissue - localized area (infarct) define iatrogenic - ANS-etiology of disease as a result of surgical/medical intervention define incidence of epidemiology - ANS-the new number of cases in a given population in a specific time period define prevalence of epidemiology - ANS-number of cases, both old and new, during a specific time period what are the four common mechanisms of cell injury and death - ANS-1. ATP Depletion 2. Oxygen and oxygen-derived free radicals 3. intracellular calcium and loss of calcium state 4. defects in membrane permeability what is the most common stressor of disease - ANS-ATP deletion what are the two phases of ATP production? - ANS-1. Anaerobic (glycolysis) 2. Aerobic (oxidative phosphorylation) how many ATP does glycolysis yield? - ANS-2 How many ATP does oxidative phosphorylation yield? - ANS-36 in ATP depletion, what are the four critical points where ATP production may be impaired? - ANS-1. Hypoxia 2. ischemia - ANS-reduced blood flow Explain hypoxia in terms of ATP depletion - ANS-obstruction -- ischemia -- decreased ATP production - - a) sodium/potassium ion pump fails, and b) increased anaerobic glycolysis explain what happens when the Na-K-ATPase pump fails due to decreased ATP production - ANSnormally, most sodium ions are outside the cell and most potassium ions are inside the cell when the pump fails, sodium freely enters the cell with H2O and calcium, and potassium freely exits the cell as a result, the cell swells and and protein synthesis stops where does protein synthesis occur in a cell? - ANS-Rough ER with ribosomes on the surface explain what happens where there is an increase in glycolysis due to decreased ATP production - ANSglycogen is decreased, lactate is increased, intracellular pH is decreased decreased pH results in pyknosis, karyorrhexis, and karyolysis define free radicals - ANS-unstable compounds with an unpaired electron why are free radicals bad? - ANS-they bind to the phospholipid bilayer of a cell and drill holes in its membrane what are reactive oxygen species? - ANS-highly reactive forms of oxygen typically from the mitochondria why are antioxidants important - ANS-protect cells from free radicals and ROS are antioxidants increased or decreased in oxidative stress - ANS-decreased :( what are three diseases linked to oxygen-derived free radicals? - ANS-1. Atherosclerosis 2. Cancer 3. Diabetes define oxidative stress - ANS-Injury induced by free-radicals and ROS two endogenous accumulations - ANS-1. Lipids 2. Bilirubin define reperfusion injury - ANS-when blood flow is restored to ischemic tissues, additional damage can occur resulting in cell death proposed reasons for reperfusion injury (5) - ANS-1. oxidative stress 2. nitrogen-based free radicals 3. increased intracellular calcium 4. inflammation 5. complement activation explain oxidative stress as it relates to reperfusion injury - ANS-reoxygenation generates ROS and nitrogen species, which damages membrane proteins and phospholipids what four ROS are generated in oxidative stress? - ANS-1. Hydroxyl radical 2. superoxide radical ion 3. nitric oxide-derived peroxynitrite