PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY-- CHEM 101 - LECTURE NOTES
TOPIC 1: KEYS TO THE STUDY OF CHEMISTRY
Definition of Chemistry: The study of matter and its properties, the changes that matter
undergoes, and the energy associated with those changes.
Branches of chemistry
A, ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Organic chemistry involves the study of the structure, properties, and preparation of chemical
compounds that consist primarily of carbon and hydrogen.
Organic chemistry overlaps with many areas including
Medicinal chemistry —the design, development, and synthesis of medicinal drugs. It
overlaps with pharmacology (the study of drug action).
Organometallic chemistry — the study of chemical compounds containing bonds between
carbon and a metal.
Polymer chemistry — study large, complex molecules (polymers) that are built up from
many smaller Monomer units
Physical organic chemistry — the study of the interrelationships between structure and
reactivity in organic molecules.
Stereochemistry — the study of the spatial arrangements of atoms in molecules and their
effects on the chemical and physical properties of substances.
B. INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Inorganic chemistry is the study of the properties and behavior of inorganic compounds.
It covers all chemical compounds except organic compounds. Inorganic chemists study things
such as crystal structures, minerals, metals, catalysts, and most elements in the Periodic Table.
Branches of inorganic chemistry include:
Bioinorganic chemistry — the study of the interaction of metal ions with living tissues
mainly through their direct effect on enzyme activity.
• Geochemistry — the study of the chemical composition and changes in rocks, minerals,
and atmosphere of the earth or a celestial body.
• Nuclear chemistry — the study of radioactive substances.
• Organometallic chemistry — the study of chemical compounds containing bonds between
carbon and a metal.
• Solid-state chemistry — the study of the synthesis, structure, and properties of solid
materials.
C. ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
Analytical chemistry involves the qualitative and quantitative determination of the chemical
components of substances.
Examples of areas using analytical chemistry include:
• Forensic chemistry — the application of chemical principles, techniques, and methods to
the investigation of crime.
• Environmental chemistry —the study of the chemical and biochemical phenomena that
occur in the environment. It relies heavily on analytical chemistry and includes atmospheric,
aquatic, and soil chemistry.
• Bio-analytical Chemistry — the examination of biological materials such as blood, urine,
hair, saliva, and sweat to detect the presence of specific drug&
D. PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
Physical Chemistry - the study of the effect of chemical structure on the physical properties of a
substance. Physical chemists typically study the rate of a chemical reaction, the interaction of
molecules with radiation, and the calculation of structures and properties.
Sub-branches of physical chemistry include:
1
,• Photochemistry — the study of the chemical changes caused by light.
• Surface chemistry — the study of chemical reactions at surfaces of substances. It includes
topics like adsorption, heterogeneous catalysis, and formation of colloids, corrosion,
electrode processes, and chromatography.
• Chemical kinetics — the study of the rates of chemical reactions, the factors affecting
those rates, and the mechanism by which the reactions proceed.
• Quantum chemistry — the mathematical description of the motion and interaction of
subatomic particles. It incorporates quantization of energy, wave-particle duality, the
uncertainty principle, and their relationship to chemical processes.
• Spectroscopy — the use of the absorption, emission, or scattering of electromagnetic
radiation by matter to study the matter or the chemical processes it undergoes.
E. BIOCHEMISTRY
Biochemistry is the study of chemical reactions that take place in living things. It tries to
explain them in chemical terms. Biochemical research includes cancer and stem cell biology,
infectious disease, and cell membrane and structural biology. It spans molecular biology,
genetics, biochemical pharmacology, clinical biochemistry, and agricultural biochemistry.
• Molecular biology — the study of the interactions between the various systems of a cell,
such as the different types of DNA, RNA, and protein biosynthesis.
• Genetics — the study of genes, heredity, and variation in living organisms.
• Pharmacology — the study of mechanisms of drug action and the influence of drugs
on an organism.
• Toxicology —a sub-branch of pharmacology that studies the effects of poisons on living
organisms.
• Clinical biochemistry — the study of the changes that disease causes in the chemical
composition and biochemical processes of the body.
• Agricultural biochemistry — the study of the chemistry that occurs in plants, animals, and
microorganisms. It is also processing raw products into food and beverages.
Thus, although there are FIVE main branches of chemistry, there are many sub-branches.
There is a huge overlap between Chemistry and Biology, Medicine, Physics, Geology, and
many other disciplines.
The methodology: The scientific method- this is an organized approach to solving scientific
problems. A procedure such as measuring the density of urine to determine the amount of sugar
present in the laboratory involves the application of the scientific method.
The scientific method consists of five processes
Observation- description/measurement
Pattern Recognition-cause-and-effect relationship
Developing theories-hypothesis/theory
Experimentation-proving that theories are correct
Summarizing information-scientific law (statement of observed behavior for which no
exceptions have been found
Science and Technology: The conversion of a material or information from its current form to
a more useful form is called Technology. Many would describe technology as applied science,
the use of scientific principles to meet human needs. Clearly, science breeds technology with
both its benefit and its potential dangers. For example, Enrico Fermi’s discovery was that the
atom could be split, producing enormous amounts of energy, has given rise to dearly beneficial
applications (nuclear radiation used to treat cancer) as well as developments that pose serious
threats to society (nuclear arms).
Data, Results, and Units
A scientific experiment produces data. Each piece of data is the individual result of a single
measurement. Mass, length, volume, time, temperature, and energy are the most common types
2
, of data obtained from chemical experiments. Results are the outcome of an experiment.
Usually, several pieces of data are combined, using mathematical equation, to produce a result.
A unit defines the basic quantity of mass, volume, time, and so on. A number that is not
followed by the correct unit usually conveys no useful information.
Quantities and Units of Measurement
Making observations is fundamental to all science. Measurement is a quantitative observation
consisting of a number and a scale (called a unit). These two parts must be present for the
measurement to be meaningful.
The quantities of measurement include mass, length, time, temperature, amount of substance,
electric current etc. Mass is the measure of the quantity of matter in an object. Mass is related to
weight, but they are different. Weight is the response of a body to the force of gravity.
Systems of Units
Scientists have traditionally used the metric system of measurement. However, the English
system has also been used widely. The metric system is a decimal system in which all of the
units are expressed as powers often time some basic unit. The metric system has now been
modified into a system of units called the International System or SI. The fundamental SI units
are as follows:
Physical Quantity Name of Unit Abbreviation
Mass Kilogram kg
Length Meter m
Time Second s
Temperature Kelvin K
Electric current Ampere A
Amount of substance Mole mol
Luminous intensity Candela cd
The measurement in chemistry
Measurement in chemistry can be defined as estimation or determinations of the ratios of
quantities relating to the properties of Matter. Measurement affects most issues of our daily
lives ranging from the quality of air we breathe, fuel in our vehicles, to the safety of our diet,
water, health care and even cosmetic products. Therefore, chemical and Bio- analytical
measurement supports the decision on food safety, health and Environmental protection.
Metrological Traceability
Metrological traceability is defined as “the property of a measurement result whereby the result
can be related to a reference through a documented unbroken chain of calibrations, each
contributing to the measurement uncertainty”. Metrological traceability has been actually
established in chemical and physical measurement, but clinical measurement in particular
presents their own unique set of problems.
Poor quality clinical measurements can lead to misdiagnosis or incorrect prescription of
medicine of patients.
NOTES
1. For this definition, a 'reference' can be a definition of a measurement unit through its
practical realization, or a measurement procedure including the measurement unit for a
non-ordinal quantity, or a measurement standard. Metrological traceability requires an
established calibration hierarchy.
2. Specification of the reference must include the time at which this reference was used in
establishing the calibration hierarchy, along with any other relevant metrological
information about the reference, such as when the first calibration in the calibration
hierarchy was performed.
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TOPIC 1: KEYS TO THE STUDY OF CHEMISTRY
Definition of Chemistry: The study of matter and its properties, the changes that matter
undergoes, and the energy associated with those changes.
Branches of chemistry
A, ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Organic chemistry involves the study of the structure, properties, and preparation of chemical
compounds that consist primarily of carbon and hydrogen.
Organic chemistry overlaps with many areas including
Medicinal chemistry —the design, development, and synthesis of medicinal drugs. It
overlaps with pharmacology (the study of drug action).
Organometallic chemistry — the study of chemical compounds containing bonds between
carbon and a metal.
Polymer chemistry — study large, complex molecules (polymers) that are built up from
many smaller Monomer units
Physical organic chemistry — the study of the interrelationships between structure and
reactivity in organic molecules.
Stereochemistry — the study of the spatial arrangements of atoms in molecules and their
effects on the chemical and physical properties of substances.
B. INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Inorganic chemistry is the study of the properties and behavior of inorganic compounds.
It covers all chemical compounds except organic compounds. Inorganic chemists study things
such as crystal structures, minerals, metals, catalysts, and most elements in the Periodic Table.
Branches of inorganic chemistry include:
Bioinorganic chemistry — the study of the interaction of metal ions with living tissues
mainly through their direct effect on enzyme activity.
• Geochemistry — the study of the chemical composition and changes in rocks, minerals,
and atmosphere of the earth or a celestial body.
• Nuclear chemistry — the study of radioactive substances.
• Organometallic chemistry — the study of chemical compounds containing bonds between
carbon and a metal.
• Solid-state chemistry — the study of the synthesis, structure, and properties of solid
materials.
C. ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
Analytical chemistry involves the qualitative and quantitative determination of the chemical
components of substances.
Examples of areas using analytical chemistry include:
• Forensic chemistry — the application of chemical principles, techniques, and methods to
the investigation of crime.
• Environmental chemistry —the study of the chemical and biochemical phenomena that
occur in the environment. It relies heavily on analytical chemistry and includes atmospheric,
aquatic, and soil chemistry.
• Bio-analytical Chemistry — the examination of biological materials such as blood, urine,
hair, saliva, and sweat to detect the presence of specific drug&
D. PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
Physical Chemistry - the study of the effect of chemical structure on the physical properties of a
substance. Physical chemists typically study the rate of a chemical reaction, the interaction of
molecules with radiation, and the calculation of structures and properties.
Sub-branches of physical chemistry include:
1
,• Photochemistry — the study of the chemical changes caused by light.
• Surface chemistry — the study of chemical reactions at surfaces of substances. It includes
topics like adsorption, heterogeneous catalysis, and formation of colloids, corrosion,
electrode processes, and chromatography.
• Chemical kinetics — the study of the rates of chemical reactions, the factors affecting
those rates, and the mechanism by which the reactions proceed.
• Quantum chemistry — the mathematical description of the motion and interaction of
subatomic particles. It incorporates quantization of energy, wave-particle duality, the
uncertainty principle, and their relationship to chemical processes.
• Spectroscopy — the use of the absorption, emission, or scattering of electromagnetic
radiation by matter to study the matter or the chemical processes it undergoes.
E. BIOCHEMISTRY
Biochemistry is the study of chemical reactions that take place in living things. It tries to
explain them in chemical terms. Biochemical research includes cancer and stem cell biology,
infectious disease, and cell membrane and structural biology. It spans molecular biology,
genetics, biochemical pharmacology, clinical biochemistry, and agricultural biochemistry.
• Molecular biology — the study of the interactions between the various systems of a cell,
such as the different types of DNA, RNA, and protein biosynthesis.
• Genetics — the study of genes, heredity, and variation in living organisms.
• Pharmacology — the study of mechanisms of drug action and the influence of drugs
on an organism.
• Toxicology —a sub-branch of pharmacology that studies the effects of poisons on living
organisms.
• Clinical biochemistry — the study of the changes that disease causes in the chemical
composition and biochemical processes of the body.
• Agricultural biochemistry — the study of the chemistry that occurs in plants, animals, and
microorganisms. It is also processing raw products into food and beverages.
Thus, although there are FIVE main branches of chemistry, there are many sub-branches.
There is a huge overlap between Chemistry and Biology, Medicine, Physics, Geology, and
many other disciplines.
The methodology: The scientific method- this is an organized approach to solving scientific
problems. A procedure such as measuring the density of urine to determine the amount of sugar
present in the laboratory involves the application of the scientific method.
The scientific method consists of five processes
Observation- description/measurement
Pattern Recognition-cause-and-effect relationship
Developing theories-hypothesis/theory
Experimentation-proving that theories are correct
Summarizing information-scientific law (statement of observed behavior for which no
exceptions have been found
Science and Technology: The conversion of a material or information from its current form to
a more useful form is called Technology. Many would describe technology as applied science,
the use of scientific principles to meet human needs. Clearly, science breeds technology with
both its benefit and its potential dangers. For example, Enrico Fermi’s discovery was that the
atom could be split, producing enormous amounts of energy, has given rise to dearly beneficial
applications (nuclear radiation used to treat cancer) as well as developments that pose serious
threats to society (nuclear arms).
Data, Results, and Units
A scientific experiment produces data. Each piece of data is the individual result of a single
measurement. Mass, length, volume, time, temperature, and energy are the most common types
2
, of data obtained from chemical experiments. Results are the outcome of an experiment.
Usually, several pieces of data are combined, using mathematical equation, to produce a result.
A unit defines the basic quantity of mass, volume, time, and so on. A number that is not
followed by the correct unit usually conveys no useful information.
Quantities and Units of Measurement
Making observations is fundamental to all science. Measurement is a quantitative observation
consisting of a number and a scale (called a unit). These two parts must be present for the
measurement to be meaningful.
The quantities of measurement include mass, length, time, temperature, amount of substance,
electric current etc. Mass is the measure of the quantity of matter in an object. Mass is related to
weight, but they are different. Weight is the response of a body to the force of gravity.
Systems of Units
Scientists have traditionally used the metric system of measurement. However, the English
system has also been used widely. The metric system is a decimal system in which all of the
units are expressed as powers often time some basic unit. The metric system has now been
modified into a system of units called the International System or SI. The fundamental SI units
are as follows:
Physical Quantity Name of Unit Abbreviation
Mass Kilogram kg
Length Meter m
Time Second s
Temperature Kelvin K
Electric current Ampere A
Amount of substance Mole mol
Luminous intensity Candela cd
The measurement in chemistry
Measurement in chemistry can be defined as estimation or determinations of the ratios of
quantities relating to the properties of Matter. Measurement affects most issues of our daily
lives ranging from the quality of air we breathe, fuel in our vehicles, to the safety of our diet,
water, health care and even cosmetic products. Therefore, chemical and Bio- analytical
measurement supports the decision on food safety, health and Environmental protection.
Metrological Traceability
Metrological traceability is defined as “the property of a measurement result whereby the result
can be related to a reference through a documented unbroken chain of calibrations, each
contributing to the measurement uncertainty”. Metrological traceability has been actually
established in chemical and physical measurement, but clinical measurement in particular
presents their own unique set of problems.
Poor quality clinical measurements can lead to misdiagnosis or incorrect prescription of
medicine of patients.
NOTES
1. For this definition, a 'reference' can be a definition of a measurement unit through its
practical realization, or a measurement procedure including the measurement unit for a
non-ordinal quantity, or a measurement standard. Metrological traceability requires an
established calibration hierarchy.
2. Specification of the reference must include the time at which this reference was used in
establishing the calibration hierarchy, along with any other relevant metrological
information about the reference, such as when the first calibration in the calibration
hierarchy was performed.
3
