Prezentacja I
Chronology:
Old English 450 – 1150 5th – mid 12th century
Middle English – 1150 – 1500 mid 12th century – late 15th century
Early Modern English – 1500 – 1650 second half of the 15th century to 1650.
Modern English – second half of the 17th century onwards.
Stone Age:
The Paleolithic Age extends from 2.6 million years ago to approximately 10,000 B.P. Archeological
evidence indicates that the Stone Age ended in Britain around 2,000 B.C. Some stone weapons were
used in the battle of Hastings!!!! Stone was displaced by bronze which, in turn, was replaced by iron
about 500 or 600 B.C
Early inhabitants:
Great Britain has been inhabited for at least 50,000 years. Paleolithic humans (Homo habilis) reached
Britain when it still constituted part of Europe. Little is known about the first inhabitants. Homo
habilis were short (1.1- 1.3 m), long-armed and short-legged. They mainly lived in caves. They did not
use tools other than a primitive sledge or ax. There are no records of the language they used.
Neolithic revolution:
Neolithic humans (5000 B.C.) - the Mediterranean race. They are thought to have been a dark race
and larger than Paleolithic humans. They managed to domesticate animals and developed primitive
forms of agriculture. They made pottery and did some weaving. They also buried their dead. Their
language is thought to have been related to the Basque language.
Arrival of the Celts:
The coming of the Celts to England coincided with the introduction of the Bronze Age. In Britain, the
Bronze Age is said to have been the period from around 2700 to 750 BC. The Bronze Age is
characterised by the use of bronze, proto-writing and primitive features of urbanisation.
Celtic Warrior Culture:
The Celtic elite fighters functioned as models, which should inspire other warriors by their courage
The Celts cut off the heads of killed enemies and collected them It was considered a spiritual gesture.
The head was valued by the Celts as the seat of life, emotions and the soul. Such trophies were
bound to their horse or fastened to their belts, a practice that also served to cause fear in their
enemies
The Celtic Languages:
Celtic was probably the first Indo-European language spoken in Britain. At the beginning of the
Christian era, the Celtic languages constituted one of the greatest branches of the Indo-European
language family. The Celts lived in present day France (Gaul), Spain, Great Britain, Western Germany
and Northern Italy. Little do we know about the Celtic language spoken on the continent (Gallic).
There are relatively numerous records of various Celtic languages spoken in the British Isles.
1
,The Celtic Languages of Britain:
The Gaelic Celts were probably the first Celts that arrived in Britain. The later invaders made them
move to Ireland, Scotland and the Isle of Man. Irish, Scottish Gaelic and Manx are descendants of
Gaelic Celtic. The Brythonic Celts settled down in England, but they were later driven westwards by
Germanic invaders. Welsh, Cornish and Breton are descendants of Brythonic Celtic.
Extinct and spoken Celtic languages:
Cornish – became extinct in the 18th century. Manx – died after WW II. Scottish Gaelic is still spoken
in the Scottish Highlands (approximately 75,000 speakers). Welsh – spoken by about 2% of the
population of Wales. Irish – spoken by approximately half a million people.
Influence of Celtic languages on English:
The impact of the Celtic languages on English has been minimal.
Placenames:
Cities: Belfast, Cardiff, Dublin, Glasgow, London, York
Rivers: Avon, Clyde, Dee, Don, Forth, Severn, Thames, Usk
Regions: Argyll, Cumbria, Devon, Dyfed, Kent, Lothian
The meaning of Celtic placenames:
Since placenames pre-date written records, their meaning is not known. Comparing them with words
found in existing Celtic languages, offers us a chance to determine the meaning of some of them.
Pen (Welsh pen) = top, hill as in Pendle Lin ( Welsh llyn) = pool as in Lincoln
The arrival of the Romans:
In 55 B.C. Julius Cesar invades Britain after the conquest of Gaul. The major reason – to prevent the
Celts of Britain from helping the Celts of Gaul. Julius Cesar's attempt was a military disaster and had
political consequences for the Cesar. A year later Julius Cesar made another attempt and this time he
succeeded. The Celtic leaders paid tribute to the Cesar and he returned to Gaul.
Emperor Claudius' invasion of Britain
43 AD - conquest proper. Claudius sent an army of 40,000 and managed to gain control of the south-
eastern regions. After the invasion a number of uprisings occurred. 61 AD - an uprising led by
Boudicca (Boadicea). Between 78-85 AD, governor Agricola advanced the northern frontier to the
Solway and the Tyne. The Romans never penetrated Wales, nor did they conquer Scotland.Hadrian's
wall – a defensive fortification whose construction began in 122 AD. during Emperor Hadrian's
rule.The Antonine Wall – the other construction whose remains are hardly evident today.
The period of the Romanisation:
The Romans brought civilisation to Britain. Four main highways spreading to the north, the
northwest, the west, the southwest and one running from Lincoln to the Severn were constructed.
2
,Hundreds of towns with houses and baths were also built. Many of the houses had water supply and
a heating system. Christianity was brought to Britain as well – two dioceses in London and York were
created before 314 A.D.
Bath:
The city was established by the Romans in 43 AD. under the name of Aquae Sulis 'the waters of Sulis'.
The Romans built baths and a temple around hot springs. The city has been a World Heritage Site
since 1987.
The impact of Latin on the language(s) of Britain.:
Latin was the official language of the Roman invaders. It did not replace the Celtic languages.
Inscriptions found in the houses of rich Britons suggest that they also spoke Latin. The use of Latin
started to decline after the last Roman legion was withdrawn from Britain in 410 AD.
Laticinisation of placenames:
The Romans often Latinicised Celtic placenames. E.g. London probably comes from the name
Londinos 'the bold one', but the Romans changed the name to Londinium. Placenames of Latin origin
include: castra = a camp, e.g. Lancaster portus = port, e.g. Portsmouth via strata = paved way,
'street', e.g. Stratford
The Germanic Conquest:
Several Germanic tribes began an invasion of Britain in 449 A.D. The Germans from Denmark and the
Low Countries settled down in the south and east of Britain. The Anglo-Saxon Cronicle The
Venerable Bede in his Ecclesiastical History of the English People (731 AD.) writes the invaders were
the Jutes, Saxons and Angles. The Jutes and the Angles came from Denmark, while the Saxons from
the north-west of present day Germany.
Invasion of the Jutes:
When the Romans withdrew from Britain, the Celts were no longer able to protect themselves. The
Celts were also attacked from the north by the Picts and Scots. Vortiger, a Celtic leader, turned to the
Jutes to help him drive the Picts out. In return, he gave them the isle of Thanet. Once the Jutes
realised that the Britons were weak, they started to settle down in other areas, getting rid of the
Britons.
The Saxons and the Angles:
The Saxons are said to have come to Britain in 477 AD. and they first established themselves in
Sussex and later in Wessex. The Angles settled down on the east coast and in 547 AD they
established an Anglian Kingdom.
Anglo-Saxon culture:
In some regions the invaders coexisted peacefully with the Celts, while in densely populated areas
they met with resistance. As a consequence of the unequal fight, many of the Celts were driven into
Wales and Cornwall. Since the Germans were hunters and farmers, they burned and destroyed most
of the Roman towns. Organisation of society – clans and families.
The Anglo-Saxons:
The main units of society were families and clans. Eorls and Ceorls Administration of justice – wergild
– a series of fines. In the course of time, tribes combined and formed small kingdoms. Northumbria,
Mercia, East Anglia, Kent, Sussex, Essex, Wessex – the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy.
3
, Political domination:
At the beginning of the seventh century, Northumbria dominated politically the other kingdoms. In
the eighth century, Mercia took over political control and achieved supremacy. In 830, all England
accepted the leadership of Egbert (Wessex). King Alfred (871-889) – a period of prosperity and
enlightenment.
The impact of the Anglo-Saxons on the languages of Britain:
The English language has its root in the language of the Germanic tribes that invaded Britain in AD
449.
Placenames:
burh = fort, e.g. Canterbury
dun = hill, e.g. Swindon
feld = open land, e.g. Mansfield
ford = river crossing, e.g. Oxford
tun = farm, village, town, e.g. Eton
ham = settlement, e.g. Northam
Third wave of invadors:
The Scandinavian Vikings from Norway, Denmark and Sweden invaded Britain in the 9th century.
They took over the east of England. Their expansion was stopped in 878 by King Alfred (Wessex). The
Danelaw. The establishment of the Danelaw created dialectal differences between the north and the
south.
Scandinavian influences on the languages of Britain:
Common placename elements include:
by = village, e.g. Kirkby, Crosby
thorp = village, e.g. Milnthorpe
thwaite = clearing, e.g. Hawthornthwaite
The English language:
Present Day English is the outcome of the history of the dialects spoken by the invaders.
At the beginning of the Germanic conquest, the dialects are believed to have been mutually
intelligible. English belongs to the Low West Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family.
The main features of the earliest form of the English language:
The shift of consonants according to Grimm's law. The strong and weak declension of the adjective.
Weak and strong conjugation of the verb. The sound system did not include voiced fricatives
Grimm’s Law:
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Chronology:
Old English 450 – 1150 5th – mid 12th century
Middle English – 1150 – 1500 mid 12th century – late 15th century
Early Modern English – 1500 – 1650 second half of the 15th century to 1650.
Modern English – second half of the 17th century onwards.
Stone Age:
The Paleolithic Age extends from 2.6 million years ago to approximately 10,000 B.P. Archeological
evidence indicates that the Stone Age ended in Britain around 2,000 B.C. Some stone weapons were
used in the battle of Hastings!!!! Stone was displaced by bronze which, in turn, was replaced by iron
about 500 or 600 B.C
Early inhabitants:
Great Britain has been inhabited for at least 50,000 years. Paleolithic humans (Homo habilis) reached
Britain when it still constituted part of Europe. Little is known about the first inhabitants. Homo
habilis were short (1.1- 1.3 m), long-armed and short-legged. They mainly lived in caves. They did not
use tools other than a primitive sledge or ax. There are no records of the language they used.
Neolithic revolution:
Neolithic humans (5000 B.C.) - the Mediterranean race. They are thought to have been a dark race
and larger than Paleolithic humans. They managed to domesticate animals and developed primitive
forms of agriculture. They made pottery and did some weaving. They also buried their dead. Their
language is thought to have been related to the Basque language.
Arrival of the Celts:
The coming of the Celts to England coincided with the introduction of the Bronze Age. In Britain, the
Bronze Age is said to have been the period from around 2700 to 750 BC. The Bronze Age is
characterised by the use of bronze, proto-writing and primitive features of urbanisation.
Celtic Warrior Culture:
The Celtic elite fighters functioned as models, which should inspire other warriors by their courage
The Celts cut off the heads of killed enemies and collected them It was considered a spiritual gesture.
The head was valued by the Celts as the seat of life, emotions and the soul. Such trophies were
bound to their horse or fastened to their belts, a practice that also served to cause fear in their
enemies
The Celtic Languages:
Celtic was probably the first Indo-European language spoken in Britain. At the beginning of the
Christian era, the Celtic languages constituted one of the greatest branches of the Indo-European
language family. The Celts lived in present day France (Gaul), Spain, Great Britain, Western Germany
and Northern Italy. Little do we know about the Celtic language spoken on the continent (Gallic).
There are relatively numerous records of various Celtic languages spoken in the British Isles.
1
,The Celtic Languages of Britain:
The Gaelic Celts were probably the first Celts that arrived in Britain. The later invaders made them
move to Ireland, Scotland and the Isle of Man. Irish, Scottish Gaelic and Manx are descendants of
Gaelic Celtic. The Brythonic Celts settled down in England, but they were later driven westwards by
Germanic invaders. Welsh, Cornish and Breton are descendants of Brythonic Celtic.
Extinct and spoken Celtic languages:
Cornish – became extinct in the 18th century. Manx – died after WW II. Scottish Gaelic is still spoken
in the Scottish Highlands (approximately 75,000 speakers). Welsh – spoken by about 2% of the
population of Wales. Irish – spoken by approximately half a million people.
Influence of Celtic languages on English:
The impact of the Celtic languages on English has been minimal.
Placenames:
Cities: Belfast, Cardiff, Dublin, Glasgow, London, York
Rivers: Avon, Clyde, Dee, Don, Forth, Severn, Thames, Usk
Regions: Argyll, Cumbria, Devon, Dyfed, Kent, Lothian
The meaning of Celtic placenames:
Since placenames pre-date written records, their meaning is not known. Comparing them with words
found in existing Celtic languages, offers us a chance to determine the meaning of some of them.
Pen (Welsh pen) = top, hill as in Pendle Lin ( Welsh llyn) = pool as in Lincoln
The arrival of the Romans:
In 55 B.C. Julius Cesar invades Britain after the conquest of Gaul. The major reason – to prevent the
Celts of Britain from helping the Celts of Gaul. Julius Cesar's attempt was a military disaster and had
political consequences for the Cesar. A year later Julius Cesar made another attempt and this time he
succeeded. The Celtic leaders paid tribute to the Cesar and he returned to Gaul.
Emperor Claudius' invasion of Britain
43 AD - conquest proper. Claudius sent an army of 40,000 and managed to gain control of the south-
eastern regions. After the invasion a number of uprisings occurred. 61 AD - an uprising led by
Boudicca (Boadicea). Between 78-85 AD, governor Agricola advanced the northern frontier to the
Solway and the Tyne. The Romans never penetrated Wales, nor did they conquer Scotland.Hadrian's
wall – a defensive fortification whose construction began in 122 AD. during Emperor Hadrian's
rule.The Antonine Wall – the other construction whose remains are hardly evident today.
The period of the Romanisation:
The Romans brought civilisation to Britain. Four main highways spreading to the north, the
northwest, the west, the southwest and one running from Lincoln to the Severn were constructed.
2
,Hundreds of towns with houses and baths were also built. Many of the houses had water supply and
a heating system. Christianity was brought to Britain as well – two dioceses in London and York were
created before 314 A.D.
Bath:
The city was established by the Romans in 43 AD. under the name of Aquae Sulis 'the waters of Sulis'.
The Romans built baths and a temple around hot springs. The city has been a World Heritage Site
since 1987.
The impact of Latin on the language(s) of Britain.:
Latin was the official language of the Roman invaders. It did not replace the Celtic languages.
Inscriptions found in the houses of rich Britons suggest that they also spoke Latin. The use of Latin
started to decline after the last Roman legion was withdrawn from Britain in 410 AD.
Laticinisation of placenames:
The Romans often Latinicised Celtic placenames. E.g. London probably comes from the name
Londinos 'the bold one', but the Romans changed the name to Londinium. Placenames of Latin origin
include: castra = a camp, e.g. Lancaster portus = port, e.g. Portsmouth via strata = paved way,
'street', e.g. Stratford
The Germanic Conquest:
Several Germanic tribes began an invasion of Britain in 449 A.D. The Germans from Denmark and the
Low Countries settled down in the south and east of Britain. The Anglo-Saxon Cronicle The
Venerable Bede in his Ecclesiastical History of the English People (731 AD.) writes the invaders were
the Jutes, Saxons and Angles. The Jutes and the Angles came from Denmark, while the Saxons from
the north-west of present day Germany.
Invasion of the Jutes:
When the Romans withdrew from Britain, the Celts were no longer able to protect themselves. The
Celts were also attacked from the north by the Picts and Scots. Vortiger, a Celtic leader, turned to the
Jutes to help him drive the Picts out. In return, he gave them the isle of Thanet. Once the Jutes
realised that the Britons were weak, they started to settle down in other areas, getting rid of the
Britons.
The Saxons and the Angles:
The Saxons are said to have come to Britain in 477 AD. and they first established themselves in
Sussex and later in Wessex. The Angles settled down on the east coast and in 547 AD they
established an Anglian Kingdom.
Anglo-Saxon culture:
In some regions the invaders coexisted peacefully with the Celts, while in densely populated areas
they met with resistance. As a consequence of the unequal fight, many of the Celts were driven into
Wales and Cornwall. Since the Germans were hunters and farmers, they burned and destroyed most
of the Roman towns. Organisation of society – clans and families.
The Anglo-Saxons:
The main units of society were families and clans. Eorls and Ceorls Administration of justice – wergild
– a series of fines. In the course of time, tribes combined and formed small kingdoms. Northumbria,
Mercia, East Anglia, Kent, Sussex, Essex, Wessex – the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy.
3
, Political domination:
At the beginning of the seventh century, Northumbria dominated politically the other kingdoms. In
the eighth century, Mercia took over political control and achieved supremacy. In 830, all England
accepted the leadership of Egbert (Wessex). King Alfred (871-889) – a period of prosperity and
enlightenment.
The impact of the Anglo-Saxons on the languages of Britain:
The English language has its root in the language of the Germanic tribes that invaded Britain in AD
449.
Placenames:
burh = fort, e.g. Canterbury
dun = hill, e.g. Swindon
feld = open land, e.g. Mansfield
ford = river crossing, e.g. Oxford
tun = farm, village, town, e.g. Eton
ham = settlement, e.g. Northam
Third wave of invadors:
The Scandinavian Vikings from Norway, Denmark and Sweden invaded Britain in the 9th century.
They took over the east of England. Their expansion was stopped in 878 by King Alfred (Wessex). The
Danelaw. The establishment of the Danelaw created dialectal differences between the north and the
south.
Scandinavian influences on the languages of Britain:
Common placename elements include:
by = village, e.g. Kirkby, Crosby
thorp = village, e.g. Milnthorpe
thwaite = clearing, e.g. Hawthornthwaite
The English language:
Present Day English is the outcome of the history of the dialects spoken by the invaders.
At the beginning of the Germanic conquest, the dialects are believed to have been mutually
intelligible. English belongs to the Low West Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family.
The main features of the earliest form of the English language:
The shift of consonants according to Grimm's law. The strong and weak declension of the adjective.
Weak and strong conjugation of the verb. The sound system did not include voiced fricatives
Grimm’s Law:
4
