ETHICS
III BSE ENGLISH
STUDY GUIDE FOR MODULE NO. 2
THE MORAL AGENT
Introduction:
What does culture mean? There are several definitions of culture. It is commonly understood that
culture is found everywhere and appears to be part of our behaviour and life. The father of cultural
anthropology, Edward Tylor stated that in general, culture is the way of life of a group of people that
“includes their knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, customs, and any other capabilities and habits acquired
by man as a member of society” (Gallinero, 2018). In this Module, “the moral agent” that we are referring to
is no other than YOU (or anyone) -the one who is in-charge and responsible for all of your actions and
decisions. Generally, you will learn from this module how culture and Filipino moral identity affect your
behavior as a “moral agent”. Likewise, you will learn how to assess your own personal experiences and
decisions against the Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development.
Topic 1. Culture and Moral Behavior
Sub-Topic 1.1. Culture and Its Role in Moral Behavior
What is Culture?
Culture is a complex phenomenon. It contains nearly all aspects of shared human experiences.
Culture possesses five basic elements: symbols, language, beliefs, values and norm (Gallinero, 2018).
The Role of Culture in Moral Behavior
Plato implied that if a person’s cultural surroundings reward conformity to agreeable norms, it would
lead the person to behave much better and quell undesirable conduct (Gallinero, 2018).
Furthermore, moral rules and the sense of moral obligation and accountability are products of
social convention and social conditioning. The aspect of morality is taught, people learn moral and immoral
from cultural transmitters: the parents, teachers, novels, films, tv shows, etc. (De Guzman, 2018).
Sub-Topic 1.2. What is Cultural Relativism? Why is it not tenable in ethics?
Cultural relativism is the view that an action is morally right if one’s culture approves of it.
James Rachels laid 5 claims of cultural relativists as to why right or wrong is only a matter of cultural
standards. Additionally, Rachels identified two positive lessons we can learn from cultural relativism: 1) “It
warns us from assuming that our preferences are the absolute rational standard”, and 2) “it teaches us
to keep an open mind and to be more amenable in discovering the truth” (Rachels, 2004).
Cultural relativism is not acceptable in ethics because of the dangers that it brings when making
moral decisions. As cited in your textbook, the dangers of cultural relativism are: 1) “we cannot call out
societal practices to promote harm, 2) we cannot justifiably criticize our own culture’s harmful
practices, and 3) the idea of societal progress becomes doubtful” (Gallinero, 2018).
, Sub-Topic 1.3. Why are There Universal Values?
Universal values refer to the values that are common to all cultures. According to Rachels, when it
comes to important moral issues, “there are some moral rules that all societies will have in common, because
those rules are necessary for society to survive” (Rachels, 2004).
The existence of the universal values is the strong proof that solely adhering to cultural relativism
is not acceptable in ethics.
Sub-Topic 1.4. The Filipino Way: An Asian and a Filipino Understanding of Moral Behavior
The Filipino culture is a mix of both Eastern and Western cultures. Patricia Licuanan, former
commissioner of CHED and a psychologist, wrote that the strengths and weaknesses of the Filipino Character
are rooted in many different factors. These factors are the home environment, culture and language, history,
educational system, religion, the economic system, political environment, mass media and leaders/role
models (Gallinero, 2018).
Sub-Topic 1.5. Strengths and Weaknesses of the Filipino Character
The most common strong aspects of the Filipino character are: pakikipagkapwa-tao, family
orientation, joy and humor, flexibility, adaptability and creativity, hardwork and industry, faith and
religiosity, and ability to survive. The most common weak aspects of the Filipino character are: extreme
personalism, extreme family centeredness, lack of discipline, passivity and lack of initiative, colonial
mentality, kanya-kanya syndrome and lack of self-analysis and self-reflection (Gallinero, 2018).
Topic 2. The Moral Agent: Developing Virtue as Habit
Sub-Topic 2.1. How is Moral Character Developed: The Circular Relation of Acts that
Build Character and Acts that Emanate from Character
Moral Character
Moral character refers to “the existence or lack of virtues such as integrity, courage, fortitude,
honesty and loyalty” (Merriam-Webster, 2017). Moral characters are those dispositions or tendencies to act or
think in a particular way by which a person can be held morally responsible (Gallinero, 2018).
According to De Guzman, “in moral development, there is a circular relation between acts that build
character and moral character itself” (De Guzman, 2018). Your moral character will produce particular
actions that are related with it, and on the other hand, the individual actions that you execute will determine
the kind of moral character that you possess. For example, if you possess an “honest character”, it will
always lead you to do actions associated with honesty (and you may rarely do actions related to dishonesty).
On the other way around, when you “tell the absolute truth even at the risk of attracting troubles”, this
particular action determines the kind of moral character that you have – which is, honesty.
, Philosophical Views on Moral Character
In Confucian tradition, personality meant “an achieved state of moral excellence”. Moral
development was attributed to the “four beginnings” of the human personality, namely: 1) the heart of
compassion (jen), 2) the heart of righteousness (ren), 3) the heart of propriety (Li), and 4) the heart of
wisdom (Zhi) (Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2017).
According to Aristotle, each person has a built-in desire to be virtuous and that if a person is
focused on being a good person the right actions will follow effortlessly and you will do good things. The
principle of being virtuous is called the “Doctrine of the Golden Mean”, the principle that the one that is
in the middle of two extreme behaviors (Gallinero, 2018).
Sub-Topic 2.2. Stages of Moral Development and Conscience: how do we get to the highest level,
conscience-based moral decisions?
Lawrence Kohlberg, an American developmental psychologist and philosopher, is known for his
theory on Moral Development. According to Kohlberg, there are three levels of moral development (pre-
conventional level, conventional level and post conventional level), each with two stages composing his so-
called “six stages of moral development”, namely: 1) punishment-obedience stage, 2) reward orientation, 3)
good boy/ good girl orientation, 4) authority orientation, 5) social contract orientation, and 6) ethical-
principle orientation.
SUMMARY
• Culture is all around us, it is a way of life. Culture includes moral values and behaviors, along with knowledge,
beliefs, symbols, etc. that are passed along by communication and imitation from one generation to the next.
Since moral behavior is part of culture, all the aspects of morality therefore are taught – communicated
and imitated.
• Cultural (moral) relativism is a theory that holds that there is no single objective universal standard
through which we can evaluate the truth of moral judgments.
• Cultural relativism is not tenable in ethics. There are universal values (and moral norms) that are
objectively applicable across all cultures.
• Filipino culture is a conglomeration of western and eastern cultures. Just like any other cultures, there
are strong and weak aspects of the Filipino character. Likewise, many of our strong points are linked to our
weaknesses. The most important thing is that we know our values as Filipinos because these help us grow
and develop.
• Moral characters are rational, informed, stable and reliable dispositions.
• In moral development, a person’s actions determine his/her moral character, but moral character itself
generates acts that help in developing either virtue or vice.
III BSE ENGLISH
STUDY GUIDE FOR MODULE NO. 2
THE MORAL AGENT
Introduction:
What does culture mean? There are several definitions of culture. It is commonly understood that
culture is found everywhere and appears to be part of our behaviour and life. The father of cultural
anthropology, Edward Tylor stated that in general, culture is the way of life of a group of people that
“includes their knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, customs, and any other capabilities and habits acquired
by man as a member of society” (Gallinero, 2018). In this Module, “the moral agent” that we are referring to
is no other than YOU (or anyone) -the one who is in-charge and responsible for all of your actions and
decisions. Generally, you will learn from this module how culture and Filipino moral identity affect your
behavior as a “moral agent”. Likewise, you will learn how to assess your own personal experiences and
decisions against the Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development.
Topic 1. Culture and Moral Behavior
Sub-Topic 1.1. Culture and Its Role in Moral Behavior
What is Culture?
Culture is a complex phenomenon. It contains nearly all aspects of shared human experiences.
Culture possesses five basic elements: symbols, language, beliefs, values and norm (Gallinero, 2018).
The Role of Culture in Moral Behavior
Plato implied that if a person’s cultural surroundings reward conformity to agreeable norms, it would
lead the person to behave much better and quell undesirable conduct (Gallinero, 2018).
Furthermore, moral rules and the sense of moral obligation and accountability are products of
social convention and social conditioning. The aspect of morality is taught, people learn moral and immoral
from cultural transmitters: the parents, teachers, novels, films, tv shows, etc. (De Guzman, 2018).
Sub-Topic 1.2. What is Cultural Relativism? Why is it not tenable in ethics?
Cultural relativism is the view that an action is morally right if one’s culture approves of it.
James Rachels laid 5 claims of cultural relativists as to why right or wrong is only a matter of cultural
standards. Additionally, Rachels identified two positive lessons we can learn from cultural relativism: 1) “It
warns us from assuming that our preferences are the absolute rational standard”, and 2) “it teaches us
to keep an open mind and to be more amenable in discovering the truth” (Rachels, 2004).
Cultural relativism is not acceptable in ethics because of the dangers that it brings when making
moral decisions. As cited in your textbook, the dangers of cultural relativism are: 1) “we cannot call out
societal practices to promote harm, 2) we cannot justifiably criticize our own culture’s harmful
practices, and 3) the idea of societal progress becomes doubtful” (Gallinero, 2018).
, Sub-Topic 1.3. Why are There Universal Values?
Universal values refer to the values that are common to all cultures. According to Rachels, when it
comes to important moral issues, “there are some moral rules that all societies will have in common, because
those rules are necessary for society to survive” (Rachels, 2004).
The existence of the universal values is the strong proof that solely adhering to cultural relativism
is not acceptable in ethics.
Sub-Topic 1.4. The Filipino Way: An Asian and a Filipino Understanding of Moral Behavior
The Filipino culture is a mix of both Eastern and Western cultures. Patricia Licuanan, former
commissioner of CHED and a psychologist, wrote that the strengths and weaknesses of the Filipino Character
are rooted in many different factors. These factors are the home environment, culture and language, history,
educational system, religion, the economic system, political environment, mass media and leaders/role
models (Gallinero, 2018).
Sub-Topic 1.5. Strengths and Weaknesses of the Filipino Character
The most common strong aspects of the Filipino character are: pakikipagkapwa-tao, family
orientation, joy and humor, flexibility, adaptability and creativity, hardwork and industry, faith and
religiosity, and ability to survive. The most common weak aspects of the Filipino character are: extreme
personalism, extreme family centeredness, lack of discipline, passivity and lack of initiative, colonial
mentality, kanya-kanya syndrome and lack of self-analysis and self-reflection (Gallinero, 2018).
Topic 2. The Moral Agent: Developing Virtue as Habit
Sub-Topic 2.1. How is Moral Character Developed: The Circular Relation of Acts that
Build Character and Acts that Emanate from Character
Moral Character
Moral character refers to “the existence or lack of virtues such as integrity, courage, fortitude,
honesty and loyalty” (Merriam-Webster, 2017). Moral characters are those dispositions or tendencies to act or
think in a particular way by which a person can be held morally responsible (Gallinero, 2018).
According to De Guzman, “in moral development, there is a circular relation between acts that build
character and moral character itself” (De Guzman, 2018). Your moral character will produce particular
actions that are related with it, and on the other hand, the individual actions that you execute will determine
the kind of moral character that you possess. For example, if you possess an “honest character”, it will
always lead you to do actions associated with honesty (and you may rarely do actions related to dishonesty).
On the other way around, when you “tell the absolute truth even at the risk of attracting troubles”, this
particular action determines the kind of moral character that you have – which is, honesty.
, Philosophical Views on Moral Character
In Confucian tradition, personality meant “an achieved state of moral excellence”. Moral
development was attributed to the “four beginnings” of the human personality, namely: 1) the heart of
compassion (jen), 2) the heart of righteousness (ren), 3) the heart of propriety (Li), and 4) the heart of
wisdom (Zhi) (Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2017).
According to Aristotle, each person has a built-in desire to be virtuous and that if a person is
focused on being a good person the right actions will follow effortlessly and you will do good things. The
principle of being virtuous is called the “Doctrine of the Golden Mean”, the principle that the one that is
in the middle of two extreme behaviors (Gallinero, 2018).
Sub-Topic 2.2. Stages of Moral Development and Conscience: how do we get to the highest level,
conscience-based moral decisions?
Lawrence Kohlberg, an American developmental psychologist and philosopher, is known for his
theory on Moral Development. According to Kohlberg, there are three levels of moral development (pre-
conventional level, conventional level and post conventional level), each with two stages composing his so-
called “six stages of moral development”, namely: 1) punishment-obedience stage, 2) reward orientation, 3)
good boy/ good girl orientation, 4) authority orientation, 5) social contract orientation, and 6) ethical-
principle orientation.
SUMMARY
• Culture is all around us, it is a way of life. Culture includes moral values and behaviors, along with knowledge,
beliefs, symbols, etc. that are passed along by communication and imitation from one generation to the next.
Since moral behavior is part of culture, all the aspects of morality therefore are taught – communicated
and imitated.
• Cultural (moral) relativism is a theory that holds that there is no single objective universal standard
through which we can evaluate the truth of moral judgments.
• Cultural relativism is not tenable in ethics. There are universal values (and moral norms) that are
objectively applicable across all cultures.
• Filipino culture is a conglomeration of western and eastern cultures. Just like any other cultures, there
are strong and weak aspects of the Filipino character. Likewise, many of our strong points are linked to our
weaknesses. The most important thing is that we know our values as Filipinos because these help us grow
and develop.
• Moral characters are rational, informed, stable and reliable dispositions.
• In moral development, a person’s actions determine his/her moral character, but moral character itself
generates acts that help in developing either virtue or vice.
