Karyotype evolution can be reassembled by the depiction of chromosome morphology. It is
based on the location of the centromere. Speciation events are usually accompanied by a change
in karyotypes. The great ape phylogeny and the origins of most of the ancient and current
primates have been problematic to discuss as the sampling procedure in ancient fossils taxa is
incomplete. The basic reason for strife is associated with discordance in fossil and molecular
estimates.
Aims
The basic aim of the project is to estimate the relative rates of neo centromere formation in great
apes to identify the cause of differences.
Objectives
The objectives of this project are listed:
To define the great ape phylogenetic tree with dates.
To determine the molecular process and karyotypic process
To teat idea that rate of karyotypic change is contrariwise related to the degree of post-
copulatory secure selection.
Research Project
The basic aim of the proposed study is to define and discuss the karyotype evolution in great ape
lineages as well as to report the rate for some elementary processes if possible. These processes
may include centromere loss or the formation of new centromere, loss of chromosomes by the
process of chromosome fusion, formation of new chromosomes by the process of chromosome
fission and some other alike processes.
,According to paleontological data, there were no crown-primates about 56 Ma ago. But
according to studies made on the basis of molecular data, the origin of crown primates has been
extended in the Cretaceous period. Crown primates can be defined as the group of primates
having all descendants, extinct or alive, of the last common ancestor of living primates.
According to some research studies based on inclusive mito-genomic observations of primates,
genomes of mitochondria from different mammalian species including primates, it was
confirmed that monophyly is present in all primate clades (Glazko & Nei, 2003). Their
phylogenetic analysis sustenance a robust topology. Great apes belong to the family Hominidae
which has 4 existing genera. These are Pongo, which includes Bornean and Sumatran
orangutans; Gorilla, which includes gorillas (both eastern and western); Pan, which includes
bonobos and chimpanzees and Homo, which includes Humans. From all these mentioned, Pan
and Gorillas, known as Africa's great apes, are the closest living relatives of humans due to
similarity in genes and genetic makeup. A basic need and main focus of biological anthropology
are to conjecture the exact evolutionary relationships that humans share with non-human
primates. It also deals with the phylogenetic relations of different primate clades (Siepel, 2009).
The basic aim is to observe the fact that how the process of evolution is different in apes and
eventually, to comprehend the exclusive variations that make humans different from other
primates. Different studies have been made and many types of analytical data are there to answer
these research questions and objectives. This analytical data includes genetic data, ecological and
behavioral data, morphological data, etc. In the 20th century, there was an outburst in the research
field of genetic study based on DNA sequences. This explosion changed our understanding of
the evolutionary history of apes and humans. These research studies also upraised some more
,research questions such as how evolutionary processes differ in the species and which of these
processes produced the diversity which is present in the great apes' species (Pozzi et al., 2014)
The diversity produced, can result in species trees and gene trees. These trees depict the
phylogenetic relations and present the evolution as well as divergence dates of several new
species og great apes.
For the last few decades, there was a great work made on phylogenetic relations of human and
non-human primates. Genetic evidence has established that humans are more closely related to
(Pan troglodytes) and Pan paniscus (chimpanzee and bonobos respectively) than with Gorilla
gorilla (Gorillas). Bonobos and chimpanzees share 99% of their genome with that of humans.
Data was collected and analyzed in the regions of the genome that can be compared and aligned
directly. After bonobos and chimpanzees, gorillas come at second, sharing 98% of their genome
(Morris Goodman & Sternera, 2010). Orangutans share 97% of their genome with humans. The
, lineage finally lead to modern humans separated from lineages leading to the orangutans about
10 to 17 MYA and from lineages leading to gorillas about 8.5 to 12 MYA. About 5.5 to 7 MYA,
the lineage finally lead to the separation of modern humans from the lineages of chimpanzees
and bonobos (Perelman et al., 2011). A detailed comparison of the complete genome of primate
species has been completed in recent years. Research suggests that the process of speciation
(human separation from bonobo, chimpanzee and gorilla) was very complex. Another fact is, the
event of separation of these lineages was very close in time and was difficult to untangle.
Predominantly, the genealogical relations of apes with humans vary across the genome (Prado-
Martinez et al., 2013). The genomic comparison of the gorilla with chimpanzees and humans
proposed that across 15% of their genome, gorillas share a close relation with chimpanzees and
humans. About 1 to 1.5 MYA, a single common ancestor was shared by bonobos and
chimpanzees. According to this fact, the genome of bonobos and chimpanzees should be distant
similarly from humans (McNulty, 2016).
With the advancement in genetics, features of characteristics evolution and functional genetics
create a focal point of human-genome comparative research. Also, the research on primate
phylogenetic relations gained a huge interest in the field of evolutionary biology. The molecular
side and researches made on genomics of primates, provides a clearer picture and clarifies the
classification of Hominoidea. Goodman and co-workers discussed claasification of Hominoidea.
It is reported that, the DNA and protein signals divide “Hominoidea” into Hominidae and
Hylobatidae, and Hominidae into Ponginae and Homininae. Furthermore, Homininae is divided
into Pan plus Gorilla and Homo. This systemic has some molecular bases. Maximum likelihood
analysis as well as Parsimony which is conceded out on orthologous non-coding nucleotide
sequences taken from primate β-globin gene cluster, gives stronger evidence for the chimpanzee-
based on the location of the centromere. Speciation events are usually accompanied by a change
in karyotypes. The great ape phylogeny and the origins of most of the ancient and current
primates have been problematic to discuss as the sampling procedure in ancient fossils taxa is
incomplete. The basic reason for strife is associated with discordance in fossil and molecular
estimates.
Aims
The basic aim of the project is to estimate the relative rates of neo centromere formation in great
apes to identify the cause of differences.
Objectives
The objectives of this project are listed:
To define the great ape phylogenetic tree with dates.
To determine the molecular process and karyotypic process
To teat idea that rate of karyotypic change is contrariwise related to the degree of post-
copulatory secure selection.
Research Project
The basic aim of the proposed study is to define and discuss the karyotype evolution in great ape
lineages as well as to report the rate for some elementary processes if possible. These processes
may include centromere loss or the formation of new centromere, loss of chromosomes by the
process of chromosome fusion, formation of new chromosomes by the process of chromosome
fission and some other alike processes.
,According to paleontological data, there were no crown-primates about 56 Ma ago. But
according to studies made on the basis of molecular data, the origin of crown primates has been
extended in the Cretaceous period. Crown primates can be defined as the group of primates
having all descendants, extinct or alive, of the last common ancestor of living primates.
According to some research studies based on inclusive mito-genomic observations of primates,
genomes of mitochondria from different mammalian species including primates, it was
confirmed that monophyly is present in all primate clades (Glazko & Nei, 2003). Their
phylogenetic analysis sustenance a robust topology. Great apes belong to the family Hominidae
which has 4 existing genera. These are Pongo, which includes Bornean and Sumatran
orangutans; Gorilla, which includes gorillas (both eastern and western); Pan, which includes
bonobos and chimpanzees and Homo, which includes Humans. From all these mentioned, Pan
and Gorillas, known as Africa's great apes, are the closest living relatives of humans due to
similarity in genes and genetic makeup. A basic need and main focus of biological anthropology
are to conjecture the exact evolutionary relationships that humans share with non-human
primates. It also deals with the phylogenetic relations of different primate clades (Siepel, 2009).
The basic aim is to observe the fact that how the process of evolution is different in apes and
eventually, to comprehend the exclusive variations that make humans different from other
primates. Different studies have been made and many types of analytical data are there to answer
these research questions and objectives. This analytical data includes genetic data, ecological and
behavioral data, morphological data, etc. In the 20th century, there was an outburst in the research
field of genetic study based on DNA sequences. This explosion changed our understanding of
the evolutionary history of apes and humans. These research studies also upraised some more
,research questions such as how evolutionary processes differ in the species and which of these
processes produced the diversity which is present in the great apes' species (Pozzi et al., 2014)
The diversity produced, can result in species trees and gene trees. These trees depict the
phylogenetic relations and present the evolution as well as divergence dates of several new
species og great apes.
For the last few decades, there was a great work made on phylogenetic relations of human and
non-human primates. Genetic evidence has established that humans are more closely related to
(Pan troglodytes) and Pan paniscus (chimpanzee and bonobos respectively) than with Gorilla
gorilla (Gorillas). Bonobos and chimpanzees share 99% of their genome with that of humans.
Data was collected and analyzed in the regions of the genome that can be compared and aligned
directly. After bonobos and chimpanzees, gorillas come at second, sharing 98% of their genome
(Morris Goodman & Sternera, 2010). Orangutans share 97% of their genome with humans. The
, lineage finally lead to modern humans separated from lineages leading to the orangutans about
10 to 17 MYA and from lineages leading to gorillas about 8.5 to 12 MYA. About 5.5 to 7 MYA,
the lineage finally lead to the separation of modern humans from the lineages of chimpanzees
and bonobos (Perelman et al., 2011). A detailed comparison of the complete genome of primate
species has been completed in recent years. Research suggests that the process of speciation
(human separation from bonobo, chimpanzee and gorilla) was very complex. Another fact is, the
event of separation of these lineages was very close in time and was difficult to untangle.
Predominantly, the genealogical relations of apes with humans vary across the genome (Prado-
Martinez et al., 2013). The genomic comparison of the gorilla with chimpanzees and humans
proposed that across 15% of their genome, gorillas share a close relation with chimpanzees and
humans. About 1 to 1.5 MYA, a single common ancestor was shared by bonobos and
chimpanzees. According to this fact, the genome of bonobos and chimpanzees should be distant
similarly from humans (McNulty, 2016).
With the advancement in genetics, features of characteristics evolution and functional genetics
create a focal point of human-genome comparative research. Also, the research on primate
phylogenetic relations gained a huge interest in the field of evolutionary biology. The molecular
side and researches made on genomics of primates, provides a clearer picture and clarifies the
classification of Hominoidea. Goodman and co-workers discussed claasification of Hominoidea.
It is reported that, the DNA and protein signals divide “Hominoidea” into Hominidae and
Hylobatidae, and Hominidae into Ponginae and Homininae. Furthermore, Homininae is divided
into Pan plus Gorilla and Homo. This systemic has some molecular bases. Maximum likelihood
analysis as well as Parsimony which is conceded out on orthologous non-coding nucleotide
sequences taken from primate β-globin gene cluster, gives stronger evidence for the chimpanzee-
