Term paper
on
CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE PULMONARY DISEASE
1
, INDEX
SINO CONTENT PAGE
NO
1 INTRODUCTION – RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 3
2 COPD - STATISTICS 11
3 DEFINTION 11
4 ETIOLOGY 12
5 PATHOPHYSIOLOGY 14
6 CLASSIFICATION 19
7 CLINICAL FEATURES 19
8 COMPLICATIONS 21
9 DIAGNOSIS 23
10 MANAGEMENT 24
11 RECENT TRENDS 47
12 PATIENT PICTURE 49
13 CONCLUSION 50
14 REFERENCES 51
2
, RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
The respiratory system is the network of organs and tissues that help to breathe. It includes airways,
lungs and blood vessels. The muscles that power the lungs are also the part of the respiratory
system. These parts work together to move oxygen throughout the body and clean out waste gases
like carbon dioxide. The primary purpose of the respiratory system is gas exchange. This involves
the transfer of oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) between the atmosphere and blood. While
adequate perfusion is needed to distribute O2 to the body tissues, adequate oxygenation depends
on a healthy, functioning respiratory system. The respiratory system is divided into 2 parts: the
upper respiratory tract and the lower respiratory tract.
Upper Respiratory Tract: The upper respiratory tract includes the nose, mouth, pharynx,
epiglottis, larynx, and trachea.
Air enters the respiratory tract through the nose. The nose is made of bone and cartilage. It is
divided into 2 nares by the nasal septum. The inside of the nose is shaped into 3 passages by
projections called turbinates. The turbinates increase the surface area of the nasal mucosa that
warms and moistens the air as it enters the nose. The internal nose opens directly into the
sinuses. The nasal cavity connects with the pharynx.
Pharynx is a tubular passageway that is subdivided into 3 parts: the nasopharynx, oropharynx,
and laryngopharynx. The nose functions to protect the lower airway by warming and
humidifying air and filtering small particles before air enters the lungs. The olfactory nerve,
found within the mucosa of the upper part of the nasal cavity, is responsible for the sense of
smell. Air moves through the oropharynx to the laryngopharynx. It then travels through the
epiglottis to the larynx before moving into the trachea. The epiglottis is a small flap behind the
tongue that closes over the larynx during swallowing. This prevents solids and liquids from
entering the lungs. The vocal cords are in the larynx. Air passes through the glottis and into
the trachea.
The trachea is a cylindrical tube about 5 in (10 to 12 cm) long and 1 in (1.5 to 2.5 cm) in
diameter. U-Shaped cartilages keep the trachea open but allow the adjacent esophagus to
expand for swallowing. The trachea bifurcates into the right and left main stem bronchi at a
point called the carina. The carina is located at the angle of Louis, which is at the level of the
4th and 5th thoracic vertebrae.
3
, 4
Structures of respiratory tract
A: Pulmonary functi3onal unit B: Ciliated mucous membrane
on
CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE PULMONARY DISEASE
1
, INDEX
SINO CONTENT PAGE
NO
1 INTRODUCTION – RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 3
2 COPD - STATISTICS 11
3 DEFINTION 11
4 ETIOLOGY 12
5 PATHOPHYSIOLOGY 14
6 CLASSIFICATION 19
7 CLINICAL FEATURES 19
8 COMPLICATIONS 21
9 DIAGNOSIS 23
10 MANAGEMENT 24
11 RECENT TRENDS 47
12 PATIENT PICTURE 49
13 CONCLUSION 50
14 REFERENCES 51
2
, RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
The respiratory system is the network of organs and tissues that help to breathe. It includes airways,
lungs and blood vessels. The muscles that power the lungs are also the part of the respiratory
system. These parts work together to move oxygen throughout the body and clean out waste gases
like carbon dioxide. The primary purpose of the respiratory system is gas exchange. This involves
the transfer of oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) between the atmosphere and blood. While
adequate perfusion is needed to distribute O2 to the body tissues, adequate oxygenation depends
on a healthy, functioning respiratory system. The respiratory system is divided into 2 parts: the
upper respiratory tract and the lower respiratory tract.
Upper Respiratory Tract: The upper respiratory tract includes the nose, mouth, pharynx,
epiglottis, larynx, and trachea.
Air enters the respiratory tract through the nose. The nose is made of bone and cartilage. It is
divided into 2 nares by the nasal septum. The inside of the nose is shaped into 3 passages by
projections called turbinates. The turbinates increase the surface area of the nasal mucosa that
warms and moistens the air as it enters the nose. The internal nose opens directly into the
sinuses. The nasal cavity connects with the pharynx.
Pharynx is a tubular passageway that is subdivided into 3 parts: the nasopharynx, oropharynx,
and laryngopharynx. The nose functions to protect the lower airway by warming and
humidifying air and filtering small particles before air enters the lungs. The olfactory nerve,
found within the mucosa of the upper part of the nasal cavity, is responsible for the sense of
smell. Air moves through the oropharynx to the laryngopharynx. It then travels through the
epiglottis to the larynx before moving into the trachea. The epiglottis is a small flap behind the
tongue that closes over the larynx during swallowing. This prevents solids and liquids from
entering the lungs. The vocal cords are in the larynx. Air passes through the glottis and into
the trachea.
The trachea is a cylindrical tube about 5 in (10 to 12 cm) long and 1 in (1.5 to 2.5 cm) in
diameter. U-Shaped cartilages keep the trachea open but allow the adjacent esophagus to
expand for swallowing. The trachea bifurcates into the right and left main stem bronchi at a
point called the carina. The carina is located at the angle of Louis, which is at the level of the
4th and 5th thoracic vertebrae.
3
, 4
Structures of respiratory tract
A: Pulmonary functi3onal unit B: Ciliated mucous membrane
