MFF
RISE TO POWER
Mussolini
Mussolini’s Talent and Flexibility of Policy
• Mussolini was a socialist, expelled from the party in 1914 for advocating interference
in WW1. He set up Il Popolo D’Italia, a socialist newspaper.
• Seeing the rise of nationalism/fascism, Mussolini shifted Il Popolo towards Fascism
after the war.
• 2 August 1921, signed a pact of pacification with the socialists to reduce violence.
• Mussolini founded the National Fascist Party in November 1921 to unify the Fascist
movement behind a party. The Party Recognised him as IlEl Duce.
• However, Mussolini didn’t seem to have an overall plan to take power. It was the Ras
who were telling him to take power, while he was reluctant to act.
Violence
• Squadristi, controlled by local leaders (Ras), began seizing power in many towns in
1922. The Socialist power in the North and Centre of Italy had virtually disappeared by
1922.
• Squadristi often intimidated socialists, such as smashing up their offices or beating up
trade unionists.
• Between 1920-22, 2 000 enemies of Fascism had been killed by squadristi and other
extremists.
• Fascism claimed to be restoring law and order to Italy through violence. People either
wanted to get rid of the socialists, so let the Squadristi do as they pleased, or were too
scared to act against them.
• March on Rome (mixture of violence and threat of violence).
• 10 000 squadristi members assembled 20 miles from Rome. More members had been
expected, but the train lines had been sabotaged. During the night of 27 October,
fascists attempted to seize power over local governments, with mixed success.
• Prime Minister Facta wanted to use martial law to stop the Fascists. King Emmanuel
denied this so Facta resigned in frustration.
• The seizures of power, combined with the rumour of a march on Rome, encouraged
King Emmanuel III to offer the role of Prime Minister to Mussolini, so as to avoid a
violent overthrow.
• The Fascists marched on Rome the following day as a celebration and to exert their
authority.
Popular Support
• The rise of socialism after WW1 led the concerned elite to support Mussolini’s fascist
movement.
• Landowners, too, feared socialism and lent their support to Fascism.
• Support for Fascism rocketed in 1920. Local elites set up squads of Fascists.
• Though some Fascists disliked Mussolini, Il Popolo became the unifying idea of
Fascism.
• Popular support enabled Fascist violence to take place without much suresistance.
• Cassels - By 1922, there was hardly any segment of the Italian establishment not ready
to collaborate with Fascism either for nationalist or anti-Bolsheviks reasons, or both.
• Many members of the Royal Family were pro-Fascist, encouraged the King to make
Mussolini Prime Minister.
• The Pope supported Mussolini and permitted Fascist banners in church.ㅔ
• Intellectuals supported fascism as a form of Italian renewal.ㅒㅐㅣ
• Most press outlets sympathised with Fascism as the only solution to fighting
communism.
Weakness Of Existing Government / Mistakes of Others
• Rising unemployment had reduced support for socialists.
, MFF
• Prime Minister Giolitti believed he could absorb the Fascist movement into the
government and reduce the power of socialism. E.g. Including Fascist leaders on the
government recommended candidate list in 1921.
• The Fascists gained 35 parliamentary seats in 1921.
• Giolitti offered Mussolini a Junior post to try and absorb him. Mussolini declined,
wanting a higher position.
• After Giolitti’s term ended, there were a number of weak left-wing prime ministers. E.g.
Facta, who failed to deal with the Fascist threat.
• After Facta resigned, Salandra didn’t want his rival Giolitti to become prime minister.
Salandra suggested a coalition with Mussolini. Mussolini declined, so Salandra told
King Emmanuel III to make Mussolini prime minister. Perhaps Salandra sought to exert
control over Mussolini.
• Giolitti was 80 at this time and failed to come down to Rome in October to take part in
negotiations over the new prime minister.
Historiography:
Dennis Mack Smith - Mussolini was an opportunist. It was the liberals who were to blame for
his rise - there was “worsened spending on social reforms” and “soaring taxes” such that the
liberal government “commended no loyalty from the Italian people.”
H. Kedward - “Fascism had wide appeal and offered everything the Liberals did not.”
F. G. Stapleton - Mussolini was a “talented opportunist and brilliant self-publicist who
manipulated a decaying parliamentary system and grabbed office by deception.”
Tobias Abse - The King played a huge role. “If only the King had woken up in a different frame
of mind one morning in October 1922, there would have been no Fascist regime.”
Stalin
Timeline:
1922 - Stalin appointed General Secretary of the Communist Party
1922 - Troika consisting of Zinoviev, Kamenev and Stalin in power due to Lenin’s illness and
inability to rule
1924 - Death of Lenin
1925 - Stalin opposes the Left Opposition (Kamenev and Zinoviev); Troika dissolved
1926 - United Opposition (left) formed when Trotsky joins K+Z, which Stalin also opposes
1927 - Stalin turns on the NEP
1928 - Grain procurement crisis, emergency measures put in place
1929 - Stalin introduces the Five Year Plan and collectivisation
1929 - Stalin emerges as the leader of the USSR
Importance of Party Organisation
• Stalin’s position as party general secretary meant that Stalin could appoint and dismiss
ministers.
• The position also gave him access to personal files such that he could learn private
details about the other ministers.
• Stalin was also Commissar for Nationalities.
• He slowly began filling the central committee with his sympathisers.
Stalin’s character and political aptness
• Stalin likely told Trotsky the wrong day for Lenin’s funeral. As such, Trotsky did not
attend and he was unable to present himself as heir to Lenin.
• After Lenin’s death, Stalin took over the Lenin Enrollment campaign which enrolled
workers into th
• /++412e party. Many workers came to view him as an important party figure because
of this. It// seemed to them that Stalin was the one taking over the role of Lenin.
• Stalin changed his theories and political alliances according to who he needed to
remove. I.e. Stalin teamed with the Right to oppose the Left Opposition in 1925, which
became the United Opposition in 1926. Stalin called them factionalists and the Left
broke down, with its members fleeing/exiled.
RISE TO POWER
Mussolini
Mussolini’s Talent and Flexibility of Policy
• Mussolini was a socialist, expelled from the party in 1914 for advocating interference
in WW1. He set up Il Popolo D’Italia, a socialist newspaper.
• Seeing the rise of nationalism/fascism, Mussolini shifted Il Popolo towards Fascism
after the war.
• 2 August 1921, signed a pact of pacification with the socialists to reduce violence.
• Mussolini founded the National Fascist Party in November 1921 to unify the Fascist
movement behind a party. The Party Recognised him as IlEl Duce.
• However, Mussolini didn’t seem to have an overall plan to take power. It was the Ras
who were telling him to take power, while he was reluctant to act.
Violence
• Squadristi, controlled by local leaders (Ras), began seizing power in many towns in
1922. The Socialist power in the North and Centre of Italy had virtually disappeared by
1922.
• Squadristi often intimidated socialists, such as smashing up their offices or beating up
trade unionists.
• Between 1920-22, 2 000 enemies of Fascism had been killed by squadristi and other
extremists.
• Fascism claimed to be restoring law and order to Italy through violence. People either
wanted to get rid of the socialists, so let the Squadristi do as they pleased, or were too
scared to act against them.
• March on Rome (mixture of violence and threat of violence).
• 10 000 squadristi members assembled 20 miles from Rome. More members had been
expected, but the train lines had been sabotaged. During the night of 27 October,
fascists attempted to seize power over local governments, with mixed success.
• Prime Minister Facta wanted to use martial law to stop the Fascists. King Emmanuel
denied this so Facta resigned in frustration.
• The seizures of power, combined with the rumour of a march on Rome, encouraged
King Emmanuel III to offer the role of Prime Minister to Mussolini, so as to avoid a
violent overthrow.
• The Fascists marched on Rome the following day as a celebration and to exert their
authority.
Popular Support
• The rise of socialism after WW1 led the concerned elite to support Mussolini’s fascist
movement.
• Landowners, too, feared socialism and lent their support to Fascism.
• Support for Fascism rocketed in 1920. Local elites set up squads of Fascists.
• Though some Fascists disliked Mussolini, Il Popolo became the unifying idea of
Fascism.
• Popular support enabled Fascist violence to take place without much suresistance.
• Cassels - By 1922, there was hardly any segment of the Italian establishment not ready
to collaborate with Fascism either for nationalist or anti-Bolsheviks reasons, or both.
• Many members of the Royal Family were pro-Fascist, encouraged the King to make
Mussolini Prime Minister.
• The Pope supported Mussolini and permitted Fascist banners in church.ㅔ
• Intellectuals supported fascism as a form of Italian renewal.ㅒㅐㅣ
• Most press outlets sympathised with Fascism as the only solution to fighting
communism.
Weakness Of Existing Government / Mistakes of Others
• Rising unemployment had reduced support for socialists.
, MFF
• Prime Minister Giolitti believed he could absorb the Fascist movement into the
government and reduce the power of socialism. E.g. Including Fascist leaders on the
government recommended candidate list in 1921.
• The Fascists gained 35 parliamentary seats in 1921.
• Giolitti offered Mussolini a Junior post to try and absorb him. Mussolini declined,
wanting a higher position.
• After Giolitti’s term ended, there were a number of weak left-wing prime ministers. E.g.
Facta, who failed to deal with the Fascist threat.
• After Facta resigned, Salandra didn’t want his rival Giolitti to become prime minister.
Salandra suggested a coalition with Mussolini. Mussolini declined, so Salandra told
King Emmanuel III to make Mussolini prime minister. Perhaps Salandra sought to exert
control over Mussolini.
• Giolitti was 80 at this time and failed to come down to Rome in October to take part in
negotiations over the new prime minister.
Historiography:
Dennis Mack Smith - Mussolini was an opportunist. It was the liberals who were to blame for
his rise - there was “worsened spending on social reforms” and “soaring taxes” such that the
liberal government “commended no loyalty from the Italian people.”
H. Kedward - “Fascism had wide appeal and offered everything the Liberals did not.”
F. G. Stapleton - Mussolini was a “talented opportunist and brilliant self-publicist who
manipulated a decaying parliamentary system and grabbed office by deception.”
Tobias Abse - The King played a huge role. “If only the King had woken up in a different frame
of mind one morning in October 1922, there would have been no Fascist regime.”
Stalin
Timeline:
1922 - Stalin appointed General Secretary of the Communist Party
1922 - Troika consisting of Zinoviev, Kamenev and Stalin in power due to Lenin’s illness and
inability to rule
1924 - Death of Lenin
1925 - Stalin opposes the Left Opposition (Kamenev and Zinoviev); Troika dissolved
1926 - United Opposition (left) formed when Trotsky joins K+Z, which Stalin also opposes
1927 - Stalin turns on the NEP
1928 - Grain procurement crisis, emergency measures put in place
1929 - Stalin introduces the Five Year Plan and collectivisation
1929 - Stalin emerges as the leader of the USSR
Importance of Party Organisation
• Stalin’s position as party general secretary meant that Stalin could appoint and dismiss
ministers.
• The position also gave him access to personal files such that he could learn private
details about the other ministers.
• Stalin was also Commissar for Nationalities.
• He slowly began filling the central committee with his sympathisers.
Stalin’s character and political aptness
• Stalin likely told Trotsky the wrong day for Lenin’s funeral. As such, Trotsky did not
attend and he was unable to present himself as heir to Lenin.
• After Lenin’s death, Stalin took over the Lenin Enrollment campaign which enrolled
workers into th
• /++412e party. Many workers came to view him as an important party figure because
of this. It// seemed to them that Stalin was the one taking over the role of Lenin.
• Stalin changed his theories and political alliances according to who he needed to
remove. I.e. Stalin teamed with the Right to oppose the Left Opposition in 1925, which
became the United Opposition in 1926. Stalin called them factionalists and the Left
broke down, with its members fleeing/exiled.
