Ethnicity,)Culture,)Politics)Readings!
!
Readings)for)lecture)1)! Contrasting*views*on*development*and*globalisation!
! !
The$readings$for$the$first$lecture$illustrate$classical$positions$that$return$in$different$forms$all$through$
the$history$of$development$theory.(I(selected(somewhat(old,(but(archetypical(and(outspoken(ones(of(
famous'authors.'Göran'Hyden'discusses'stages'in'development'thought'–!in#the#lecture#we#expand#on#
this%to%the%present%day.%The%other%texts%(Amartya%Sen%on%the%concept%of%development,%and#Benjamin#
Barber&on&Jihad&vs&McWorld)&illustrate&two&contrasting&views&on&development&and&glocalisation.&In&the&
lectures! I" also" discuss" two" other" classical" positions" (Modernisation" as" represented" by" Francis"
Fukuyama,(and(culturalism,(as(represented(by(Samuel%Huntington).%Their%key%texts%(“End%of%History”%
and$“Clash$of$Civilisations”)$you$may$already$read$in$other$courses$or$find$yourself$on$the$internet.!
For$all$the$texts$you$read$in$the$framework$of$this$course:$be$aware$that$there$are$texts$of$different!
kinds.' Some' provide' basically'information) –! then% summarise% for% yourself% the% most% important% data.%
Some%texts%exemplify%a%point&of&view.!Here$the$argument,$the$opinion$argued$for,$and$the$differences$
with%opponents%are%the%most%important%things%to%remember.!
!
!
The$ text$ of$ Goran& Hyden& on& “Changing& Ideological& && Theoretical& Perspectives& on& Development”!!
provides)a)short)overview)of)the)development)of)theory)in)the)last)half)of)the)20th!century.)Its)elements)
are$discussed$in$more$detail$in$the$handbook$of$the$Global%Development%Course.%%A%few%terms%may%not%
be#familiar#to#you#and#you#may#have#to#check#out#their#specific#meaning,#such#as:#‘small#is#beautiful’,#
‘enabling)environment’,)‘basic)needs)approach’,)‘dependency)theory’.!
Given&that&Hyden’s&overview&ends&15&years%ago,%one%may%ask%the%question%of%what%happened%next?%
Well,% the% ‘architects’% /% development% practitioners% have% remained% very% much% on% the% private% sector%
development* track* of* the* 1980s.* But* the* policy* has* been* to* avoid* the* failures* of* a* pure* market*
orientation&by&attention&to&‘pro!poor$growth’,$and$‘good$governance’,$thus$giving$much$attention$to$
the$strengthening$of$the$capacity$of$the$institutions,$in$particular$in$the$state$(and$in$a$way$returning$
to#the#first#quarter#in#Hyden’s#circular#process!).#The#enormous(successes(of(Chinese(development(also(
suggest&that,&after&all,&the&state&can&be&a&vital&force&in&guiding&fast&development.&In&Development&Theory&
today,'there'is'a'tendency'to'stress'that'it'is'difficult'to'specify'one'success'formula'for'development;$$
what%works%well%depends%largely%on%the%specific%context%!!inside&the&country&as&well&as&the&context&of&
its$international$exchanges.!
!
,!
Specific'Reading'questions'Hyden:!
1.! what%is%the%difference%between%‘architects’%and%‘auditors’?%Which%of%the%two%roles%would&
you$prefer$for$yourself?$Why?!
!
Architects:* Persons' with' vision,' wedded' to' a' particular' ideology.' Most' of' them' occupy' positions' of'
power& as& a& prerequisite& for& the& successful& dissemination& of& their& ideas.& These& ideas& may& shape& the&
development*of*a*civil"society."!
!
Auditors:*Auditors)of)development)are)academics.)They)access)how)successful)the!architects)are)in)
shaping(process(of(social(change(according(to(their(own(models.(They(can(become(activists!when%the%
ideal& and& practice& of& development& grows& increasingly' apart.' They' have' a' responsibility' to' highlight&
elements'that'architects'obliterate'or'leave'out'of'their'equations.'Academics)influence)the)ideologies)
of#the#architects.#!
!
2.! Sketch'each'of'the'four'stages'in'Development*Ideology.!
!
!
!
!
(1)! Trickle(down(!
!
(2)! Basic&needs&!
!
(3)! Small%is%beautiful%!
!
(4)! Enabling(Environment(!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
,1"(1955%–!1965)!TRICKLE(DOWN!!!!Influenced)by)the)political)architects)trying)to)draw)the)full)lessons)
from%WW11.%Polticy%makers%were%preoccupied%with%trying%to%find%out%with%could,%and%should,"be"done"
to#allow#countries#to#emerge#out#of#poverty.#!
(Keynes)(An(alternative(approach(to(economic(approach'which'gave'governments'an'important'role'in'
the$development$process$by$assigning$the$key$role$to$the$public$sector$as$generator$of$of$consumer$
demands.& Public& policy& and& public& management! were$ more$ active$ forces$ in$ national$ economics$
(attributes*of*the*welfare*state).*The*model*of*the*state*as*a*means*to*reduce*poverty*and$address$
imbalances!caused'by'colonial'policy'was$applied$to$post$colonial$Africa.$!
!
The$ political$ ambitions$ of$ African$ politicians$ were$ to$ industrialize$ their$ countries.$ To$ educate$ their$
populations,+ promote+ manufacturing+ and+ human+ resources,+ upgrade+ medical! facilities) for) the) local)
population.*–!large#investments#were#needed.#!
!
It#is#called#the#trickle#down#because#growth'was'to'be'achieved'through'targeting'special'categories'of'
people% who% ahd% the% capacity% to% make% a% difference.% For% example,% In% agriculture% they% identified%
‘progressive’+farmers+who+were#supposed#to#take#the#lead.#!
!
A"‘development"administration’"was"being"advocated"–!refers%to%the%administration%of%development%
programmes) and) the) methods) used) by) the) government) to) implement) development) programmes.)
Constrasted*with*regular*‘bureaucratic*administration’.,!
!
BUT$ –! state% administrated% growth% was% not% enough% to% guarantee% progress.% And% in% the% next% stage%
‘development’,was,no,longer,coterminous,with,growth.,!
!
2"(1965&–!1975)&–!Basic&needs!–!!
Basic&needs&approach&online&definition:&The&basic&needs&approach!is#one#of#the#major#approaches!to#
the$ measurement$ of$ absolute$ poverty$ in$ developing$ countries.$ It$ attempts$ to$ define$ the$ absolute$
minimum% resources% necessary% for% long!term% physical% well!being,' usually' in' terms' of' consumption'
goods.!
!
(definition)in)text))A)reaction)to)the)optimism)of)the)first)stage.)The$argument$was$growth$without$
equity'is'not'development.'The$progressive$farmer$was$replaced$with$the$poor$peasant.$Now$the$stress$
was$on$the$importance$of$a$determined$political$will$and"a"strong"benevolent"government"to"carry"out"
redistributive*politics.*Redistribution*in*favour*of*the*poor*population*with*greater*support*of*social*
, development*–!even$more$investment$in$education$and$health$than$the$first$phase.$This%was%because%
of#the#assumption)that)without)basic)needs,)poor)people)could)not)participate)in)development.)!
!
This% redefinition% of% development% had% important% repercussions% on% its% management.% There% as%
administrative+reform+as+the+development+administration+failed+to+work+well,+so!there%were%efforts%to%
decentralise+authority+and+to+integrate+management+structures+for+development.+!
Integrated) development) programmes) –! integrated) programmes) were) carried) out) within) existing)
structures' or' independent' helped' bolster' the' executive' capacity" in" the" field" and" increased"
management'loads.'!
!
3"(1975"–!1985)&–!Small%is%beautiful%!
!
A" continuation" of" the" fist" two" phases" BUT" less" reliance" on" the" government." It# reflected! the$ new$
conditions(and$growing$illusion$with$reliance$on$government$institutions$not$only$to$modernise$Africa$
but$also$reduce$poverty$on$the$continent.$There$was$increasing$doubt$that$governments$were$willing$
to#or#could#serve#as#the#sole#dispenser#of#benefits.#People#became!less$engaged$with$the$state.$!
!
Small%is%beautiful%e.g%that%small!scale&and&private&efforts&(grass&roots&organisations)&can&achieve&with&
large&scale&government&bureaucracies&failed&to&do.&It&was&acknowledged&that&development&
managements(also(involved(other!insitutions'such'as'those'in'which'people'participated'freely'and'
voluntarily+with+grass+roots+organisations+which+had+growing+responsibility+(for+example,+training+
nurses).(!
!
The$importance$of$the$growing$informal$sector!–!the$government$was$encouraged$to"recnognsie"it’s"
importance+in+development+!
!
4"(1985!)"–!Enabling(environment(!
!
These%small%grass%root%organisations%had%to%be%recognised%to%be%effective,%to%be%incorporated%into%
broader'institutional'networks.'But'this'wasn’t'happening'so'the'international#community#begun#to#
stress%the%need%for%new%support%structures%outside%the%government.%!
!
An#enabling#environment#is#being#defined#an!open,&pluralistic,&providing&conditions&in&which&
economic'and'political'restructuring'can'take'place'in'a'constructive'fashion.'!
!
Readings)for)lecture)1)! Contrasting*views*on*development*and*globalisation!
! !
The$readings$for$the$first$lecture$illustrate$classical$positions$that$return$in$different$forms$all$through$
the$history$of$development$theory.(I(selected(somewhat(old,(but(archetypical(and(outspoken(ones(of(
famous'authors.'Göran'Hyden'discusses'stages'in'development'thought'–!in#the#lecture#we#expand#on#
this%to%the%present%day.%The%other%texts%(Amartya%Sen%on%the%concept%of%development,%and#Benjamin#
Barber&on&Jihad&vs&McWorld)&illustrate&two&contrasting&views&on&development&and&glocalisation.&In&the&
lectures! I" also" discuss" two" other" classical" positions" (Modernisation" as" represented" by" Francis"
Fukuyama,(and(culturalism,(as(represented(by(Samuel%Huntington).%Their%key%texts%(“End%of%History”%
and$“Clash$of$Civilisations”)$you$may$already$read$in$other$courses$or$find$yourself$on$the$internet.!
For$all$the$texts$you$read$in$the$framework$of$this$course:$be$aware$that$there$are$texts$of$different!
kinds.' Some' provide' basically'information) –! then% summarise% for% yourself% the% most% important% data.%
Some%texts%exemplify%a%point&of&view.!Here$the$argument,$the$opinion$argued$for,$and$the$differences$
with%opponents%are%the%most%important%things%to%remember.!
!
!
The$ text$ of$ Goran& Hyden& on& “Changing& Ideological& && Theoretical& Perspectives& on& Development”!!
provides)a)short)overview)of)the)development)of)theory)in)the)last)half)of)the)20th!century.)Its)elements)
are$discussed$in$more$detail$in$the$handbook$of$the$Global%Development%Course.%%A%few%terms%may%not%
be#familiar#to#you#and#you#may#have#to#check#out#their#specific#meaning,#such#as:#‘small#is#beautiful’,#
‘enabling)environment’,)‘basic)needs)approach’,)‘dependency)theory’.!
Given&that&Hyden’s&overview&ends&15&years%ago,%one%may%ask%the%question%of%what%happened%next?%
Well,% the% ‘architects’% /% development% practitioners% have% remained% very% much% on% the% private% sector%
development* track* of* the* 1980s.* But* the* policy* has* been* to* avoid* the* failures* of* a* pure* market*
orientation&by&attention&to&‘pro!poor$growth’,$and$‘good$governance’,$thus$giving$much$attention$to$
the$strengthening$of$the$capacity$of$the$institutions,$in$particular$in$the$state$(and$in$a$way$returning$
to#the#first#quarter#in#Hyden’s#circular#process!).#The#enormous(successes(of(Chinese(development(also(
suggest&that,&after&all,&the&state&can&be&a&vital&force&in&guiding&fast&development.&In&Development&Theory&
today,'there'is'a'tendency'to'stress'that'it'is'difficult'to'specify'one'success'formula'for'development;$$
what%works%well%depends%largely%on%the%specific%context%!!inside&the&country&as&well&as&the&context&of&
its$international$exchanges.!
!
,!
Specific'Reading'questions'Hyden:!
1.! what%is%the%difference%between%‘architects’%and%‘auditors’?%Which%of%the%two%roles%would&
you$prefer$for$yourself?$Why?!
!
Architects:* Persons' with' vision,' wedded' to' a' particular' ideology.' Most' of' them' occupy' positions' of'
power& as& a& prerequisite& for& the& successful& dissemination& of& their& ideas.& These& ideas& may& shape& the&
development*of*a*civil"society."!
!
Auditors:*Auditors)of)development)are)academics.)They)access)how)successful)the!architects)are)in)
shaping(process(of(social(change(according(to(their(own(models.(They(can(become(activists!when%the%
ideal& and& practice& of& development& grows& increasingly' apart.' They' have' a' responsibility' to' highlight&
elements'that'architects'obliterate'or'leave'out'of'their'equations.'Academics)influence)the)ideologies)
of#the#architects.#!
!
2.! Sketch'each'of'the'four'stages'in'Development*Ideology.!
!
!
!
!
(1)! Trickle(down(!
!
(2)! Basic&needs&!
!
(3)! Small%is%beautiful%!
!
(4)! Enabling(Environment(!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
,1"(1955%–!1965)!TRICKLE(DOWN!!!!Influenced)by)the)political)architects)trying)to)draw)the)full)lessons)
from%WW11.%Polticy%makers%were%preoccupied%with%trying%to%find%out%with%could,%and%should,"be"done"
to#allow#countries#to#emerge#out#of#poverty.#!
(Keynes)(An(alternative(approach(to(economic(approach'which'gave'governments'an'important'role'in'
the$development$process$by$assigning$the$key$role$to$the$public$sector$as$generator$of$of$consumer$
demands.& Public& policy& and& public& management! were$ more$ active$ forces$ in$ national$ economics$
(attributes*of*the*welfare*state).*The*model*of*the*state*as*a*means*to*reduce*poverty*and$address$
imbalances!caused'by'colonial'policy'was$applied$to$post$colonial$Africa.$!
!
The$ political$ ambitions$ of$ African$ politicians$ were$ to$ industrialize$ their$ countries.$ To$ educate$ their$
populations,+ promote+ manufacturing+ and+ human+ resources,+ upgrade+ medical! facilities) for) the) local)
population.*–!large#investments#were#needed.#!
!
It#is#called#the#trickle#down#because#growth'was'to'be'achieved'through'targeting'special'categories'of'
people% who% ahd% the% capacity% to% make% a% difference.% For% example,% In% agriculture% they% identified%
‘progressive’+farmers+who+were#supposed#to#take#the#lead.#!
!
A"‘development"administration’"was"being"advocated"–!refers%to%the%administration%of%development%
programmes) and) the) methods) used) by) the) government) to) implement) development) programmes.)
Constrasted*with*regular*‘bureaucratic*administration’.,!
!
BUT$ –! state% administrated% growth% was% not% enough% to% guarantee% progress.% And% in% the% next% stage%
‘development’,was,no,longer,coterminous,with,growth.,!
!
2"(1965&–!1975)&–!Basic&needs!–!!
Basic&needs&approach&online&definition:&The&basic&needs&approach!is#one#of#the#major#approaches!to#
the$ measurement$ of$ absolute$ poverty$ in$ developing$ countries.$ It$ attempts$ to$ define$ the$ absolute$
minimum% resources% necessary% for% long!term% physical% well!being,' usually' in' terms' of' consumption'
goods.!
!
(definition)in)text))A)reaction)to)the)optimism)of)the)first)stage.)The$argument$was$growth$without$
equity'is'not'development.'The$progressive$farmer$was$replaced$with$the$poor$peasant.$Now$the$stress$
was$on$the$importance$of$a$determined$political$will$and"a"strong"benevolent"government"to"carry"out"
redistributive*politics.*Redistribution*in*favour*of*the*poor*population*with*greater*support*of*social*
, development*–!even$more$investment$in$education$and$health$than$the$first$phase.$This%was%because%
of#the#assumption)that)without)basic)needs,)poor)people)could)not)participate)in)development.)!
!
This% redefinition% of% development% had% important% repercussions% on% its% management.% There% as%
administrative+reform+as+the+development+administration+failed+to+work+well,+so!there%were%efforts%to%
decentralise+authority+and+to+integrate+management+structures+for+development.+!
Integrated) development) programmes) –! integrated) programmes) were) carried) out) within) existing)
structures' or' independent' helped' bolster' the' executive' capacity" in" the" field" and" increased"
management'loads.'!
!
3"(1975"–!1985)&–!Small%is%beautiful%!
!
A" continuation" of" the" fist" two" phases" BUT" less" reliance" on" the" government." It# reflected! the$ new$
conditions(and$growing$illusion$with$reliance$on$government$institutions$not$only$to$modernise$Africa$
but$also$reduce$poverty$on$the$continent.$There$was$increasing$doubt$that$governments$were$willing$
to#or#could#serve#as#the#sole#dispenser#of#benefits.#People#became!less$engaged$with$the$state.$!
!
Small%is%beautiful%e.g%that%small!scale&and&private&efforts&(grass&roots&organisations)&can&achieve&with&
large&scale&government&bureaucracies&failed&to&do.&It&was&acknowledged&that&development&
managements(also(involved(other!insitutions'such'as'those'in'which'people'participated'freely'and'
voluntarily+with+grass+roots+organisations+which+had+growing+responsibility+(for+example,+training+
nurses).(!
!
The$importance$of$the$growing$informal$sector!–!the$government$was$encouraged$to"recnognsie"it’s"
importance+in+development+!
!
4"(1985!)"–!Enabling(environment(!
!
These%small%grass%root%organisations%had%to%be%recognised%to%be%effective,%to%be%incorporated%into%
broader'institutional'networks.'But'this'wasn’t'happening'so'the'international#community#begun#to#
stress%the%need%for%new%support%structures%outside%the%government.%!
!
An#enabling#environment#is#being#defined#an!open,&pluralistic,&providing&conditions&in&which&
economic'and'political'restructuring'can'take'place'in'a'constructive'fashion.'!
