Prokaryotic/
CELLS bacterial cell
Capsule/slime layer in
some bacteria
Cells The basic building units of all living
organisms
Prokaryotic Bacterial cells Peptidoglycons
Eukaryotic Cells found in animals and plants
Resolution The ability of a microscope to allow us to
see fine details
Specimen The thing you look at under a
microscope
Animal cell Plant cell
Cell wall
Cell membrane Lipid droplets/glycogen
droplets
Nucleus They have a cell membrane and cytoplasm
but they have no nucleus, no mitochondria
or chloroplasts, cell wall is made of
Vacuole peptidoglycons and have plasmids
Cytoplasm
Chloroplasts
ALWAYS USE
Mitochondria
DIAGRAMS/GRAPHS TO
ANSWER QUESTIONS
Cell membrane Layer controls what enters and leaves the Microscopes
cells – selectively/semi-permeable, only
allows some substances through
Cytoplasm Thick jelly-like liquid in which many cell x10
reactions take place body
Mitochondria Organelles which carry out respiration to
make energy
Nucleus Control centre (cell metabolism + division)
of cell – contains genetic material in form of
chromosomes – made up of DNA. Sections
of DNA which code for specific
characteristics called genes.
+ cover
Vacuole Permanent fluid filled sac. Contains slip
minerals dissolved in water and helps
provide support to plant cells when filled
with water
Cell wall Strong, rigid, outer layer on all plant cells. base
Made up of a sugar called cellulose.
Completely permeable. Provide support Start at lowest power objective – wider field of view to
find what you’re looking for + less likely to damage objective
Chloroplast Contain green pigment – chlorophyll – lens, and ensures the slide is where it should be with the
traps sun’s energy and plants use this to coarse focus knob before using the fine focus – clearer
make glucose during photosynthesis image
Plasmids Small circular pieces of DNA In order to use a microscope:
i. Place smallest objective lens over hold in stage
ii. Place slide on stage
iii. Turn coarse focus knob to move objective lens closer to
stage
Making a slide: iv. Adjust light source or mirror
We look at a specimen through a microscope that is on a piece v. Look into eyepiece lens
of glass called a slide. A drop of water or stain (so we can see vi. Turn coarse focus knob until what you see is clear/in
specimen) is added to slide and thin piece of glass called a focus. You can use the fine focus to make image sharper.
cover slip is placed on top. Lens closest to specimen is called vii. If you wish to examine image under higher power turn
objective lens. Cover slip helps flatten specimen and prevent it turret containing objective lens until a new lens “clicks”
from drying out/keep moist, and avoids lens becoming dirty. into position
It’s lowered slowly – no air bubbles. Specimen thin to ensure viii. You should only need to adjust focus using fine focus
light can go through it - visible knob
, Practical 1 – making a temporary plant and animal cell slide using a light microscope
to examine and identify structures
ONION CELL: CHEEK CELL:
●
Using tweezers, remove layer of onion tissue from onion ●
Rub a cotton wool bud on your inner cheek
●
Place onion tissue on a microscope slide, ensuring it’s flat ●
Rub cotton wool bud on a microscope slide
●
Add a drop of iodine ●
Add a drop of methylene blue
●
Place a cover slip on top ●
Place cover slip on top
●
View under a microscope ●
View under microscope
Magnification
Unit Symbol Conversion Standard form When using a microscope, objects are
magnified. Magnification is:
Metre m
Size of image
Millimetre mm 1m = 1000mm 10-3m
------------------
Micrometre um 1m = 1000000um 10-3mm or 10-6m Real size of object
To magnify image: change objective lens to a higher power e.g 12mm
-------- = magnification of 2.4x
Electron microscopes can see smallest cell structures - x500000 5mm
Organisation of living organisms
Animals and plants are multicellular – made up of large numbers of cells. They become specialised according to their function.
Tissues are made up of many cells that perform on or several function e.g. muscle. Organs are then made up of several types
of tissues that work together to carry out a specifc function e.g. the leaf, a stomach. Groups of organs working together are
known as a system e.g digestive
System Function Organs
Circulatory Transport substances around body Heart and blood vessels
Digestive Break down large insoluble molecules into small soluble Mouth, stomach, small and large
molecules intestine
Endocrine Produces hormones and chemical messages around body Brain, ovaries, testes, glands
Nervous Detects stimuli and makes a response Brain, spinal cord
Male reproductive Produces male gamete (sperm) to produce young Testes, penis
Female reproductive Produces female gamete (eggs) to produce young Ovaries, uterus
Respiratory Take in oxygen and excrete carbon dioxide Lungs
The main reason for having these tissues, organs and systems is:
a. improve exchange with environment e.g oxygen and carbon dioxide in respiratory, water, food and nutrients in digestive
and excretory
b. transport substances/metabolites e.g blood, water and gases in circulatory, hormones in endocrine/reproductive and
sugars and toxins in digestive/excretory
c. communicate between cells via nerves, hormones – nervous/endocrine system, to respond to stimuli and cause a
response
, Diffusion
It’s important in a living cell that essential materials can enter and waste products can leave through the membrane. Diffusion is
the random movement of a substance from where it’s in high concentration to low concentration. It particularly important in
passage of gases through cell membranes e.g. the diffusion of gases from lungs into bloodstream and in and out of a leaf
Three factors that affect rate of diffusion:
●
Concentration gradient – difference in concentration
●
Temperature which increases kinetic energy of molecules and speeds up diffusion
●
Larger surface area – faster diffusion takes place
As an organism becomes
bigger its volume increases at
a greater rate than its surface
area – more cells (volume) but
surface area across which it
exchanges with its environment
decreases (relatively).
Therefore, specialised exchange
surfaces required which increase
surface are and enables
organism to meet cell demands
for important substances. Often
these exchange surfaces are a
long way from many parts of the
body and so a circulatory system
is required to transport
substances.
Stem cells
A stem cell is “an undifferentiated or partially differentiated cell that can differentiate into various types of cells and
proliferate indefinitely to produce more of the same stem cell”. Stem cells are contained in the brain, lungs, heart, liver,
genitalia, kidney, intestines and muscle in the body
A blastocyst is a “cluster of dividing cells made
Properties Adult Embryonic
by a fertilised egg, in which some differentiation
of cells has occured
Flexibility Can only differentiate Can differentiate into
into some types of any type of cell
Uses:
cells e.g bone, hair,
At the moment, bone marrow cells are used to
brain
treat leukemia, lymphoma and several inherited
- depends on area of
blood disorders, and stem cells can be used to
extraction
treat spinal cord injury, cardiovascular ailments
Proliferation Less plentiful More plentiful and vision impairment, however they are being
experimentally used to treat cancer and nerve
Risks More likely to be Less likely to be cells damaged by Parkinson’s disease
mutated/less likely to mutated/more likely
be rejected to be rejected
Methods of extraction for embryonic stem
Ethical concerns Consent to donate, Destroys embryos, cells:
early clinical trials, can be considered
oversight of non- human, against
embryonic stem cells religious beliefs, has
human rights
Methods of extration for adult stem cells:
A blood sample is taken and then stem cells are taken using a
cell seperator machine for later use, or a bone marrow sample
is taken and stem cells extracted from it once a hip sample has
been verified.
Ethics means pertaining to moral or principles of morality;
being in accordance of rules or standards for right conduct or
practice e.g. not unnecessarily killing
Validation is important as it ensures research and findings are
legitimately useful and beneficial, rather than used to profit by, In plants stem cells originate from meristems at the tips of
and ensures that multiple options and issues are brough up roots and shoots and many retain the ability to divide/can
and resolved redifferentiate so are used in cloning techniques
, Respiration and breathing
Respiration A series of chemical changes that releases energy (exothermic) from food materials
Diffusion Diffusion is a physical process that refers to the net movement of molecules from a region of high concentration
to one of lower concentration.
Gas exchange The exchange of gas between a cell or organism and its environment.
Concentration A difference in the concentration of solute across a membrane
gradient
Bell jar model
As the rubber sheet is pulled down the volume of the jar increases, the
pressure therefore decreases and air is drawn in through the glass tube
inflating the balloons, which represent the lungs.
Thorax structure
Trachea/windpipe runs from pharynx to lungs -
Air is cleaned, warmed and moistened
it’s divided into two bronchi which enter lungs.
by small hairs/cilia, sticky mucus and
Trachea and bronchi held open by C-shaped
blood capillaries in nasal and tracheal
rings of cartilage in their walls. This shape
linings. Cilia move backwards and
gives more flexibility when bending neck or
forward and move the sticky mucus
swallowing than a solid ring would allow. Cilia
(with any trapped germs ) into back of
and mucus remove dust + germs
pharynx or mouth cavity where it is
swallowed. Sensory organs in nose give
sense of smell
Flap of skin at top of the
trachea: closes over it when
/passage + nostril Pharynx
we swallow and prevents
food falling into air passages. buccal cavity
If food particles do enter the
trachea by mistake (food
going the wrong way), they’re Vocal cords
removed by coughing .
/larynx Ribs are held together
Cavity at the top of the by intercostal
trachea/windpipe that muscles. External
contains folds of skin Bronchiole
intercostal muscles
(vocal cords) which Alveoli contract and raise rib
vibrate causing sound cage. Internal
waves to be produced intercostal muscles
when air from lungs is contract and are used
forced over them for forcing extra air out
of lungs during
coughing or sneezing.
+ pleural fluid Heart
Right
lung
Lungs and inside of thoracic cavity are
lined by thin membranes. These
Each bronchus divides into smaller
membranes form an air-tight pleural
bronchioles. These further divide into smaller Muscular sheet between
sac around each lung. They produce
branches and end in a mass of thin walled air thorax and abdomen. At
an oily pleural fluid which allows them
sacs containing bubble-like pockets called rest it’s domed shape and
to slide over one another during
alveoli These form the 'bronchial tree'. Each extends into the thoracic
breathing. If air accidentally enters
alveolus is about 0.2mm in diameter and they cavity. Liver and stomach
pleural sac through puncture, then
give lungs their spongy texture. Alveoli form sit immediately below it.
cavity will remain at atmospheric
the respiratory surface and are surrounded by
pressure and lungs will not inflate.
network of blood capillaries.
CELLS bacterial cell
Capsule/slime layer in
some bacteria
Cells The basic building units of all living
organisms
Prokaryotic Bacterial cells Peptidoglycons
Eukaryotic Cells found in animals and plants
Resolution The ability of a microscope to allow us to
see fine details
Specimen The thing you look at under a
microscope
Animal cell Plant cell
Cell wall
Cell membrane Lipid droplets/glycogen
droplets
Nucleus They have a cell membrane and cytoplasm
but they have no nucleus, no mitochondria
or chloroplasts, cell wall is made of
Vacuole peptidoglycons and have plasmids
Cytoplasm
Chloroplasts
ALWAYS USE
Mitochondria
DIAGRAMS/GRAPHS TO
ANSWER QUESTIONS
Cell membrane Layer controls what enters and leaves the Microscopes
cells – selectively/semi-permeable, only
allows some substances through
Cytoplasm Thick jelly-like liquid in which many cell x10
reactions take place body
Mitochondria Organelles which carry out respiration to
make energy
Nucleus Control centre (cell metabolism + division)
of cell – contains genetic material in form of
chromosomes – made up of DNA. Sections
of DNA which code for specific
characteristics called genes.
+ cover
Vacuole Permanent fluid filled sac. Contains slip
minerals dissolved in water and helps
provide support to plant cells when filled
with water
Cell wall Strong, rigid, outer layer on all plant cells. base
Made up of a sugar called cellulose.
Completely permeable. Provide support Start at lowest power objective – wider field of view to
find what you’re looking for + less likely to damage objective
Chloroplast Contain green pigment – chlorophyll – lens, and ensures the slide is where it should be with the
traps sun’s energy and plants use this to coarse focus knob before using the fine focus – clearer
make glucose during photosynthesis image
Plasmids Small circular pieces of DNA In order to use a microscope:
i. Place smallest objective lens over hold in stage
ii. Place slide on stage
iii. Turn coarse focus knob to move objective lens closer to
stage
Making a slide: iv. Adjust light source or mirror
We look at a specimen through a microscope that is on a piece v. Look into eyepiece lens
of glass called a slide. A drop of water or stain (so we can see vi. Turn coarse focus knob until what you see is clear/in
specimen) is added to slide and thin piece of glass called a focus. You can use the fine focus to make image sharper.
cover slip is placed on top. Lens closest to specimen is called vii. If you wish to examine image under higher power turn
objective lens. Cover slip helps flatten specimen and prevent it turret containing objective lens until a new lens “clicks”
from drying out/keep moist, and avoids lens becoming dirty. into position
It’s lowered slowly – no air bubbles. Specimen thin to ensure viii. You should only need to adjust focus using fine focus
light can go through it - visible knob
, Practical 1 – making a temporary plant and animal cell slide using a light microscope
to examine and identify structures
ONION CELL: CHEEK CELL:
●
Using tweezers, remove layer of onion tissue from onion ●
Rub a cotton wool bud on your inner cheek
●
Place onion tissue on a microscope slide, ensuring it’s flat ●
Rub cotton wool bud on a microscope slide
●
Add a drop of iodine ●
Add a drop of methylene blue
●
Place a cover slip on top ●
Place cover slip on top
●
View under a microscope ●
View under microscope
Magnification
Unit Symbol Conversion Standard form When using a microscope, objects are
magnified. Magnification is:
Metre m
Size of image
Millimetre mm 1m = 1000mm 10-3m
------------------
Micrometre um 1m = 1000000um 10-3mm or 10-6m Real size of object
To magnify image: change objective lens to a higher power e.g 12mm
-------- = magnification of 2.4x
Electron microscopes can see smallest cell structures - x500000 5mm
Organisation of living organisms
Animals and plants are multicellular – made up of large numbers of cells. They become specialised according to their function.
Tissues are made up of many cells that perform on or several function e.g. muscle. Organs are then made up of several types
of tissues that work together to carry out a specifc function e.g. the leaf, a stomach. Groups of organs working together are
known as a system e.g digestive
System Function Organs
Circulatory Transport substances around body Heart and blood vessels
Digestive Break down large insoluble molecules into small soluble Mouth, stomach, small and large
molecules intestine
Endocrine Produces hormones and chemical messages around body Brain, ovaries, testes, glands
Nervous Detects stimuli and makes a response Brain, spinal cord
Male reproductive Produces male gamete (sperm) to produce young Testes, penis
Female reproductive Produces female gamete (eggs) to produce young Ovaries, uterus
Respiratory Take in oxygen and excrete carbon dioxide Lungs
The main reason for having these tissues, organs and systems is:
a. improve exchange with environment e.g oxygen and carbon dioxide in respiratory, water, food and nutrients in digestive
and excretory
b. transport substances/metabolites e.g blood, water and gases in circulatory, hormones in endocrine/reproductive and
sugars and toxins in digestive/excretory
c. communicate between cells via nerves, hormones – nervous/endocrine system, to respond to stimuli and cause a
response
, Diffusion
It’s important in a living cell that essential materials can enter and waste products can leave through the membrane. Diffusion is
the random movement of a substance from where it’s in high concentration to low concentration. It particularly important in
passage of gases through cell membranes e.g. the diffusion of gases from lungs into bloodstream and in and out of a leaf
Three factors that affect rate of diffusion:
●
Concentration gradient – difference in concentration
●
Temperature which increases kinetic energy of molecules and speeds up diffusion
●
Larger surface area – faster diffusion takes place
As an organism becomes
bigger its volume increases at
a greater rate than its surface
area – more cells (volume) but
surface area across which it
exchanges with its environment
decreases (relatively).
Therefore, specialised exchange
surfaces required which increase
surface are and enables
organism to meet cell demands
for important substances. Often
these exchange surfaces are a
long way from many parts of the
body and so a circulatory system
is required to transport
substances.
Stem cells
A stem cell is “an undifferentiated or partially differentiated cell that can differentiate into various types of cells and
proliferate indefinitely to produce more of the same stem cell”. Stem cells are contained in the brain, lungs, heart, liver,
genitalia, kidney, intestines and muscle in the body
A blastocyst is a “cluster of dividing cells made
Properties Adult Embryonic
by a fertilised egg, in which some differentiation
of cells has occured
Flexibility Can only differentiate Can differentiate into
into some types of any type of cell
Uses:
cells e.g bone, hair,
At the moment, bone marrow cells are used to
brain
treat leukemia, lymphoma and several inherited
- depends on area of
blood disorders, and stem cells can be used to
extraction
treat spinal cord injury, cardiovascular ailments
Proliferation Less plentiful More plentiful and vision impairment, however they are being
experimentally used to treat cancer and nerve
Risks More likely to be Less likely to be cells damaged by Parkinson’s disease
mutated/less likely to mutated/more likely
be rejected to be rejected
Methods of extraction for embryonic stem
Ethical concerns Consent to donate, Destroys embryos, cells:
early clinical trials, can be considered
oversight of non- human, against
embryonic stem cells religious beliefs, has
human rights
Methods of extration for adult stem cells:
A blood sample is taken and then stem cells are taken using a
cell seperator machine for later use, or a bone marrow sample
is taken and stem cells extracted from it once a hip sample has
been verified.
Ethics means pertaining to moral or principles of morality;
being in accordance of rules or standards for right conduct or
practice e.g. not unnecessarily killing
Validation is important as it ensures research and findings are
legitimately useful and beneficial, rather than used to profit by, In plants stem cells originate from meristems at the tips of
and ensures that multiple options and issues are brough up roots and shoots and many retain the ability to divide/can
and resolved redifferentiate so are used in cloning techniques
, Respiration and breathing
Respiration A series of chemical changes that releases energy (exothermic) from food materials
Diffusion Diffusion is a physical process that refers to the net movement of molecules from a region of high concentration
to one of lower concentration.
Gas exchange The exchange of gas between a cell or organism and its environment.
Concentration A difference in the concentration of solute across a membrane
gradient
Bell jar model
As the rubber sheet is pulled down the volume of the jar increases, the
pressure therefore decreases and air is drawn in through the glass tube
inflating the balloons, which represent the lungs.
Thorax structure
Trachea/windpipe runs from pharynx to lungs -
Air is cleaned, warmed and moistened
it’s divided into two bronchi which enter lungs.
by small hairs/cilia, sticky mucus and
Trachea and bronchi held open by C-shaped
blood capillaries in nasal and tracheal
rings of cartilage in their walls. This shape
linings. Cilia move backwards and
gives more flexibility when bending neck or
forward and move the sticky mucus
swallowing than a solid ring would allow. Cilia
(with any trapped germs ) into back of
and mucus remove dust + germs
pharynx or mouth cavity where it is
swallowed. Sensory organs in nose give
sense of smell
Flap of skin at top of the
trachea: closes over it when
/passage + nostril Pharynx
we swallow and prevents
food falling into air passages. buccal cavity
If food particles do enter the
trachea by mistake (food
going the wrong way), they’re Vocal cords
removed by coughing .
/larynx Ribs are held together
Cavity at the top of the by intercostal
trachea/windpipe that muscles. External
contains folds of skin Bronchiole
intercostal muscles
(vocal cords) which Alveoli contract and raise rib
vibrate causing sound cage. Internal
waves to be produced intercostal muscles
when air from lungs is contract and are used
forced over them for forcing extra air out
of lungs during
coughing or sneezing.
+ pleural fluid Heart
Right
lung
Lungs and inside of thoracic cavity are
lined by thin membranes. These
Each bronchus divides into smaller
membranes form an air-tight pleural
bronchioles. These further divide into smaller Muscular sheet between
sac around each lung. They produce
branches and end in a mass of thin walled air thorax and abdomen. At
an oily pleural fluid which allows them
sacs containing bubble-like pockets called rest it’s domed shape and
to slide over one another during
alveoli These form the 'bronchial tree'. Each extends into the thoracic
breathing. If air accidentally enters
alveolus is about 0.2mm in diameter and they cavity. Liver and stomach
pleural sac through puncture, then
give lungs their spongy texture. Alveoli form sit immediately below it.
cavity will remain at atmospheric
the respiratory surface and are surrounded by
pressure and lungs will not inflate.
network of blood capillaries.
