CHAPTER
Introduction, Acquiring
Knowledge, and the
Scientific Method
1
1.1 Methods of Knowing and
Acquiring Knowledge
1.2 The Scientific Method
1.3 The Research Process
© Nathan Jasowiak / Shutterstock
chapter learning objectives
LO1 Compare and contrast the nonscientific methods for knowing or
acquiring knowledge (tenacity, intuition, authority, the rational
method, and the empirical method). Identify an example and explain
the limitations of each method.
LO2 Identify and describe the steps of the scientific method.
LO3 Define induction and deduction and explain the role of each in the
scientific method.
LO4 Distinguish between a hypothesis and a prediction.
LO5 Explain what it means to say that the scientific method is empirical,
public, and objective.
LO6 Distinguish between science and pseudoscience.
LO7 Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative research and rec-
ognize examples of each.
LO8 Identify and describe the steps in the research process.
1
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
13316_ch01_ptg01_001-028.indd 1 29/08/17 9:12
, 2 Chapter 1 | Introduction, Acquiring Knowledge, and the Scientific Method
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
In this chapter, we introduce the topic of this textbook: research methodology. Research
methods are intended to provide scientists with effective procedures for gathering infor-
mation and answering questions. We begin by discussing the many ways of acquiring
knowledge or finding answers to questions, including the scientific method. Next, we
provide a thorough discussion of the scientific method. The chapter ends with an out-
line of the research process or the way the scientific method is applied to answer a
particular question. The research process provides the framework for the rest of the
textbook.
1.1 Methods of Knowing and Acquiring Knowledge
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
LO1 Compare and contrast the nonscientific methods for knowing or acquiring knowledge
(tenacity, intuition, authority, the rational method, and the empirical method). Identify
an example and explain the limitations of each method.
Consider the following questions.
Does multitasking make you more efficient with your time?
Does having more friends make you less vulnerable to depression?
Are children of divorced parents less likely to be satisfied with their romantic
relationships?
Are girls more likely to cyberbully than boys?
Does eating cake for breakfast make dieters more likely to stick to their diets later in
the day?
Are adolescents who play violent video games more aggressive than adolescents who
do not play violent video games?
Does playing brain games in adulthood make it less likely you will develop
Alzheimer’s?
If you find these questions interesting, then you may also be interested in learning how
to find the answers. Although there are many different ways to find answers to questions
like these, in this book we focus on the method used by behavioral scientists: the scientific
method. The scientific method is considered basic, standard practice in the world of sci-
ence. Students in the behavioral sciences (e.g., psychology, sociology, or criminal justice)
Terms printed in should understand how this process works and have some appreciation of its strengths and
boldface are defined weaknesses. Before we begin, however, you should realize that the methods used in scien-
in the glossary. Some
tific research are not the only ones available for answering questions, and they are not nec-
terms, identified as key
words, are also defined
essarily the most efficient. There are many different ways of knowing or finding answers
in the text. to questions. In general, the different ways that people know, or the methods that people
use to discover answers, are referred to as methods of acquiring knowledge.
DEFINITION Methods of acquiring knowledge are ways in which a person can know things or
discover answers to questions.
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
13316_ch01_ptg01_001-028.indd 2 29/08/17 9:12
, 1.1 | Methods of Knowing and Acquiring Knowledge 3
The rest of this chapter examines several established methods of knowing and acquir-
ing knowledge. We begin with five nonscientific approaches: the method of tenacity,
the method of intuition, the method of authority, the rational method, and the method of
empiricism. We conclude with a more detailed discussion of the scientific method. As
you will see, the scientific method combines elements from each of the other methods to
produce a general question-answering technique that avoids some of the limitations or pit-
falls of other methods. Although the scientific method tends to be more complicated and
more time consuming than the other methods, the goal is to obtain better-quality answers
or at least a higher level of confidence in the answers. Finally, we warn that the scientific
method outlines a general strategy for answering questions; the specific details of applying
the scientific method to particular problems form the content of the remainder of the book.
The Method of Tenacity
The method of tenacity involves holding on to ideas and beliefs simply because they have
been accepted as facts for a long time or because of superstition. Therefore, the method
of tenacity is based on habit or superstition. Habit leads us to continue believing some-
thing we have always believed. Often this is referred to as belief perseverance. For exam-
ple, you’ve probably heard the clichés, “You cannot teach an old dog new tricks” and
“Opposites attract.” These statements have been presented over and over again, and they
have been accepted as true. In general, the more frequently we are exposed to statements,
the more we tend to believe them. Advertisers successfully use the method of tenacity,
repeating their slogans over and over, hoping consumers will accept them as true (and
subsequently buy their products). A very catchy fast-food jingle exclaiming, “I’m lovin’
it” hopes we do just that and buy more burgers from them.
DEFINITION In the method of tenacity, information is accepted as true because it has always
been believed or because superstition supports it.
The method of tenacity also involves the persistence of superstitions, which represent
beliefs reacted to as fact. For example, everyone “knows” that breaking a mirror will result
in 7 years of bad luck and that you should never walk under a ladder or let a black cat cross
your path. Many sports figures will only play a game when wearing their lucky socks or
jersey, and many students will not take an exam without their lucky pencil or hat.
One problem with the method of tenacity is that the information acquired might not
be accurate. With regard to the statement about old dogs not being able to learn new tricks,
the elderly can and do learn (O’Hara, Brooks, Friedman, Schroder, Morgan, & Kraemer,
2007). With regard to the statement that opposites attract, research shows that people
are attracted to people who are like them (Klohnen & Luo, 2003). Another pitfall of the
method of tenacity is that there is no method for correcting erroneous ideas. Even in the
face of evidence to the contrary, a belief that is widely accepted can be very difficult to
change.
The Method of Intuition
In the method of intuition, information is accepted as true because it “feels right.” With
intuition, a person relies on hunches and “instinct” to answer questions. Whenever we say
we know something because we have a “gut feeling” about it, we are using the method of
intuition. For many questions, this method is the quickest way to obtain answers. When we
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
13316_ch01_ptg01_001-028.indd 3 29/08/17 9:12
Introduction, Acquiring
Knowledge, and the
Scientific Method
1
1.1 Methods of Knowing and
Acquiring Knowledge
1.2 The Scientific Method
1.3 The Research Process
© Nathan Jasowiak / Shutterstock
chapter learning objectives
LO1 Compare and contrast the nonscientific methods for knowing or
acquiring knowledge (tenacity, intuition, authority, the rational
method, and the empirical method). Identify an example and explain
the limitations of each method.
LO2 Identify and describe the steps of the scientific method.
LO3 Define induction and deduction and explain the role of each in the
scientific method.
LO4 Distinguish between a hypothesis and a prediction.
LO5 Explain what it means to say that the scientific method is empirical,
public, and objective.
LO6 Distinguish between science and pseudoscience.
LO7 Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative research and rec-
ognize examples of each.
LO8 Identify and describe the steps in the research process.
1
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
13316_ch01_ptg01_001-028.indd 1 29/08/17 9:12
, 2 Chapter 1 | Introduction, Acquiring Knowledge, and the Scientific Method
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
In this chapter, we introduce the topic of this textbook: research methodology. Research
methods are intended to provide scientists with effective procedures for gathering infor-
mation and answering questions. We begin by discussing the many ways of acquiring
knowledge or finding answers to questions, including the scientific method. Next, we
provide a thorough discussion of the scientific method. The chapter ends with an out-
line of the research process or the way the scientific method is applied to answer a
particular question. The research process provides the framework for the rest of the
textbook.
1.1 Methods of Knowing and Acquiring Knowledge
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
LO1 Compare and contrast the nonscientific methods for knowing or acquiring knowledge
(tenacity, intuition, authority, the rational method, and the empirical method). Identify
an example and explain the limitations of each method.
Consider the following questions.
Does multitasking make you more efficient with your time?
Does having more friends make you less vulnerable to depression?
Are children of divorced parents less likely to be satisfied with their romantic
relationships?
Are girls more likely to cyberbully than boys?
Does eating cake for breakfast make dieters more likely to stick to their diets later in
the day?
Are adolescents who play violent video games more aggressive than adolescents who
do not play violent video games?
Does playing brain games in adulthood make it less likely you will develop
Alzheimer’s?
If you find these questions interesting, then you may also be interested in learning how
to find the answers. Although there are many different ways to find answers to questions
like these, in this book we focus on the method used by behavioral scientists: the scientific
method. The scientific method is considered basic, standard practice in the world of sci-
ence. Students in the behavioral sciences (e.g., psychology, sociology, or criminal justice)
Terms printed in should understand how this process works and have some appreciation of its strengths and
boldface are defined weaknesses. Before we begin, however, you should realize that the methods used in scien-
in the glossary. Some
tific research are not the only ones available for answering questions, and they are not nec-
terms, identified as key
words, are also defined
essarily the most efficient. There are many different ways of knowing or finding answers
in the text. to questions. In general, the different ways that people know, or the methods that people
use to discover answers, are referred to as methods of acquiring knowledge.
DEFINITION Methods of acquiring knowledge are ways in which a person can know things or
discover answers to questions.
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
13316_ch01_ptg01_001-028.indd 2 29/08/17 9:12
, 1.1 | Methods of Knowing and Acquiring Knowledge 3
The rest of this chapter examines several established methods of knowing and acquir-
ing knowledge. We begin with five nonscientific approaches: the method of tenacity,
the method of intuition, the method of authority, the rational method, and the method of
empiricism. We conclude with a more detailed discussion of the scientific method. As
you will see, the scientific method combines elements from each of the other methods to
produce a general question-answering technique that avoids some of the limitations or pit-
falls of other methods. Although the scientific method tends to be more complicated and
more time consuming than the other methods, the goal is to obtain better-quality answers
or at least a higher level of confidence in the answers. Finally, we warn that the scientific
method outlines a general strategy for answering questions; the specific details of applying
the scientific method to particular problems form the content of the remainder of the book.
The Method of Tenacity
The method of tenacity involves holding on to ideas and beliefs simply because they have
been accepted as facts for a long time or because of superstition. Therefore, the method
of tenacity is based on habit or superstition. Habit leads us to continue believing some-
thing we have always believed. Often this is referred to as belief perseverance. For exam-
ple, you’ve probably heard the clichés, “You cannot teach an old dog new tricks” and
“Opposites attract.” These statements have been presented over and over again, and they
have been accepted as true. In general, the more frequently we are exposed to statements,
the more we tend to believe them. Advertisers successfully use the method of tenacity,
repeating their slogans over and over, hoping consumers will accept them as true (and
subsequently buy their products). A very catchy fast-food jingle exclaiming, “I’m lovin’
it” hopes we do just that and buy more burgers from them.
DEFINITION In the method of tenacity, information is accepted as true because it has always
been believed or because superstition supports it.
The method of tenacity also involves the persistence of superstitions, which represent
beliefs reacted to as fact. For example, everyone “knows” that breaking a mirror will result
in 7 years of bad luck and that you should never walk under a ladder or let a black cat cross
your path. Many sports figures will only play a game when wearing their lucky socks or
jersey, and many students will not take an exam without their lucky pencil or hat.
One problem with the method of tenacity is that the information acquired might not
be accurate. With regard to the statement about old dogs not being able to learn new tricks,
the elderly can and do learn (O’Hara, Brooks, Friedman, Schroder, Morgan, & Kraemer,
2007). With regard to the statement that opposites attract, research shows that people
are attracted to people who are like them (Klohnen & Luo, 2003). Another pitfall of the
method of tenacity is that there is no method for correcting erroneous ideas. Even in the
face of evidence to the contrary, a belief that is widely accepted can be very difficult to
change.
The Method of Intuition
In the method of intuition, information is accepted as true because it “feels right.” With
intuition, a person relies on hunches and “instinct” to answer questions. Whenever we say
we know something because we have a “gut feeling” about it, we are using the method of
intuition. For many questions, this method is the quickest way to obtain answers. When we
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
13316_ch01_ptg01_001-028.indd 3 29/08/17 9:12
