THEORIES THAT ARE IMPORTANT:
Social Learning Theory and Delinquent Behavior
Social learning theory is a theory of learning process and social behavior which proposes
that new behaviors can be acquired by observing and imitating others (Albert Bandura). In
addition to the observation of behavior, learning also occurs through the observation of
rewards and punishments, a process known as vicarious reinforcement (learning through
observation of the consequences of actions for other people). Stimulus and responses
external to the individual are important.
The theory of social learning states that criminal behavior is learned when the positive
consequences of deviant behavior are more powerful than the positive consequences of
normative behavior (operant conditioning - a process by which humans and animals learn to
behave in such a way as to obtain rewards and avoid punishments). The learning of criminal
behavior is dependent on whether it is differentially amplified – i.e., whether a deviant
behavior is positively stimulated or negatively stimulated – or whether it is punished or
conformal behavior is amplified more than criminal behavior.
The observation of the actions of others and their consequences can also lead to a
strengthening of one’s own behavior. A direct social interaction process (in contrast to
Sutherland’s theory) is not absolutely necessary here, since non-social situations (e.g., via
the media) can also have an amplifying effect. In fact, SLT takes Sutherland’s basic idea as its
starting point, expands it to include the idea of social learning, and finally explains the
process of learning criminal behavior through the principle of operant conditioning. Contact
with criminal persons is not the cause of crime, but the reinforcement/reward of deviant
behavior.
Steps in Social Learning:
1. Attention - Observation of behavior within the immediate environment.
2. Retention - How well the behavior is remembered. An internal memory event that is
essential for learning a new behavior.
3. Reproduction - The ability to execute the model’s behavior.
4. Motivation - The ability to reproduce the behavior, individual’s desire and will is
important.
The variant of social learning theory (SLT) proposed by Burgess and Akers (1966) and
subsequently refined by Akers (1998) is best viewed as a general theory of crime and
deviance. Social learning is not simply a theory of juvenile delinquency, adult criminality, or
any other specific form of rule-breaking. SLT explains the sociological, social psychological,
and social structural forces behind a broad range of miscreant and deviant behaviors.
Akers (1985) provided a merger of Sutherland’s differential association theory (DAT) with
principles of operant conditioning that can be applied to collective and individual behaviors
such as illicit drug use, drinking and alcohol behavior, and sexual deviance.
,Sutherland’s Nine Propositions:
1. All criminal behavior is learned.
2. Criminal behavior is learned through interactions with others via a process of
communication.
3. Most learning about criminal behavior happens in intimate personal groups and
relationships.
4. The process of learning criminal behavior may include learning about techniques to carry
out the behavior as well as the motives and rationalizations that would justify criminal
activity and the attitudes necessary to orient an individual towards such activity.
5. The direction of motives and drives towards criminal behavior is learned through the
interpretation of legal codes in one’s geographical area as favorable or unfavourable.
6. When the number of favorable interpretations that support violating the law outweigh
the unfavourable interpretations that don’t, an individual will choose to become a criminal.
7. All differential associations aren’t equal. They can vary in frequency, intensity, priority, and
duration.
8. The process of learning criminal behaviors through interactions with others relies on the
same mechanisms that are used in learning about any other behavior.
9. Criminal behavior could be an expression of generalized needs and values, but they don’t
explain the behavior because non-criminal behavior expresses the same needs and values.
Burgess and Akers (1966) extended Sutherland’s DAT, reducing it from nine to seven
propositions – in the language of operant conditioning and calling it differential association-
reinforcement theory. Burgess and Akers used operant conditioning to explain how any
learned content becomes part of an individual’s social psychological makeup, an element
missing from Sutherland’s formulation. Articulated by Akers (1985), the theory has four
component parts.
Key Components of SLT:
1. Differential Association
- Refers to direct social interaction with members of a primary group and less concrete but
no less important identifications with more distal groups, the latter also serving as sources of
learning. These are not only peer associations, but rather the sum total of all social
influences including family, school teachers and other public officials, neighbours, and
religious figures.
2. Imitation:
, - Occurs when an individual copies the behavior of others, perhaps not completely
understanding why the behavior is important or in what ways or even when it might be
rewarding to the actor. Imitation is the most basic form of learning.
3. Definitions: - Serve as guideposts for behavior, good and bad, rewarding and punishing.
4. Differential Reinforcement:
- Exists in both social and non-social forms; such reinforcements are preventive or
prospective in nature, suggesting to the actor whether the behavior guided by those
definitions is likely to be rewarded or punished, even if that reward is only physiological in
nature.
Individuals turn to crimes, “because of contacts with criminal patterns and also because of
isolation from anti-criminal patterns.” Akers took Sutherland’s DAT and provided a detailed
explanation of the mechanisms by which certain definitions become an integral part of a
person’s decision-making processes. Sutherland’s rather vague “principle of differential
association,” which stated that delinquency ensues when the definitions favouring criminal
conduct overwhelmed those definitions favouring lawful conduct, was recast in an operant
conditioning framework.
Vicarious Reinforcement is a key concept in Social Learning Theory that explains how
individuals learn behaviors by observing others being rewarded or punished for their
actions. This type of reinforcement does not involve direct personal experience but occurs
through indirect learning.
When a person observes someone else receiving a positive consequence (reward) for a
specific behavior, they are more likely to imitate that behavior in the hope of achieving a
similar reward. Similarly, observing others being punished for certain actions can discourage
an observer from performing those actions.
Criticism of Social Learning Theory
1. Overemphasis on Nurture: Critics argue that it underestimates the role of biological
and genetic factors in behavior.
2. Difficulty in Measuring Learning: Observing and quantifying the processes of
attention, retention, and motivation can be subjective.
3. Focus on Observable Behaviors: The theory may overlook unobservable processes,
such as unconscious influences.
4. Ignores Individual Differences: Not everyone exposed to criminal behavior becomes
a criminal; personal traits and situational factors also matter.
Example from Pakistan
• Juvenile Delinquency: In Pakistan, young individuals in certain areas may learn
criminal behaviors, such as theft or drug dealing, by observing older peers or family
members involved in illegal activities.
, • Radicalization and Extremism: Exposure to extremist ideologies through social
groups or online platforms can lead to radical behaviors, as individuals observe and
imitate the norms of such groups.
Application in Criminology
Social Learning Theory has been widely applied to explain criminal behavior. It argues that:
• Criminal behavior is learned through interactions with peers, family, or media.
• Delinquent behavior is reinforced when it leads to material gain, social acceptance,
or thrill.
• Negative reinforcement, such as avoiding punishment or criticism, also contributes to
learning deviant behaviors.
Here is the simplified text based on the uploaded content, with additional examples,
criticisms, and other relevant points:
Social Conflict Theories
Social conflict theories view crime as a result of the conflicts that exist within society. These
theories are inspired by the works of Karl Marx and later interpreted by scholars like Bonger
and Dahrendorf. They propose that crime is caused by class conflict, and laws are created
by those in power to protect their own interests. This aligns with Quinney's concept of the
"social reality of crime", which states that all criminal acts have political undertones.
Causes of Social Conflict
Social conflicts arise due to:
1. Differences in lifestyles of people belonging to different social groups.
2. Socio-economic disparities.
3. Unequal access to resources.
4. Varied interpretations of rules of behavior.
5. Contradictions between society and governmental structures.
Key Assumptions of Social Conflict Theory
1. Human self-interest drives behavior.
2. Societies operate under perpetual scarcity of resources, leading to competition.
Social Learning Theory and Delinquent Behavior
Social learning theory is a theory of learning process and social behavior which proposes
that new behaviors can be acquired by observing and imitating others (Albert Bandura). In
addition to the observation of behavior, learning also occurs through the observation of
rewards and punishments, a process known as vicarious reinforcement (learning through
observation of the consequences of actions for other people). Stimulus and responses
external to the individual are important.
The theory of social learning states that criminal behavior is learned when the positive
consequences of deviant behavior are more powerful than the positive consequences of
normative behavior (operant conditioning - a process by which humans and animals learn to
behave in such a way as to obtain rewards and avoid punishments). The learning of criminal
behavior is dependent on whether it is differentially amplified – i.e., whether a deviant
behavior is positively stimulated or negatively stimulated – or whether it is punished or
conformal behavior is amplified more than criminal behavior.
The observation of the actions of others and their consequences can also lead to a
strengthening of one’s own behavior. A direct social interaction process (in contrast to
Sutherland’s theory) is not absolutely necessary here, since non-social situations (e.g., via
the media) can also have an amplifying effect. In fact, SLT takes Sutherland’s basic idea as its
starting point, expands it to include the idea of social learning, and finally explains the
process of learning criminal behavior through the principle of operant conditioning. Contact
with criminal persons is not the cause of crime, but the reinforcement/reward of deviant
behavior.
Steps in Social Learning:
1. Attention - Observation of behavior within the immediate environment.
2. Retention - How well the behavior is remembered. An internal memory event that is
essential for learning a new behavior.
3. Reproduction - The ability to execute the model’s behavior.
4. Motivation - The ability to reproduce the behavior, individual’s desire and will is
important.
The variant of social learning theory (SLT) proposed by Burgess and Akers (1966) and
subsequently refined by Akers (1998) is best viewed as a general theory of crime and
deviance. Social learning is not simply a theory of juvenile delinquency, adult criminality, or
any other specific form of rule-breaking. SLT explains the sociological, social psychological,
and social structural forces behind a broad range of miscreant and deviant behaviors.
Akers (1985) provided a merger of Sutherland’s differential association theory (DAT) with
principles of operant conditioning that can be applied to collective and individual behaviors
such as illicit drug use, drinking and alcohol behavior, and sexual deviance.
,Sutherland’s Nine Propositions:
1. All criminal behavior is learned.
2. Criminal behavior is learned through interactions with others via a process of
communication.
3. Most learning about criminal behavior happens in intimate personal groups and
relationships.
4. The process of learning criminal behavior may include learning about techniques to carry
out the behavior as well as the motives and rationalizations that would justify criminal
activity and the attitudes necessary to orient an individual towards such activity.
5. The direction of motives and drives towards criminal behavior is learned through the
interpretation of legal codes in one’s geographical area as favorable or unfavourable.
6. When the number of favorable interpretations that support violating the law outweigh
the unfavourable interpretations that don’t, an individual will choose to become a criminal.
7. All differential associations aren’t equal. They can vary in frequency, intensity, priority, and
duration.
8. The process of learning criminal behaviors through interactions with others relies on the
same mechanisms that are used in learning about any other behavior.
9. Criminal behavior could be an expression of generalized needs and values, but they don’t
explain the behavior because non-criminal behavior expresses the same needs and values.
Burgess and Akers (1966) extended Sutherland’s DAT, reducing it from nine to seven
propositions – in the language of operant conditioning and calling it differential association-
reinforcement theory. Burgess and Akers used operant conditioning to explain how any
learned content becomes part of an individual’s social psychological makeup, an element
missing from Sutherland’s formulation. Articulated by Akers (1985), the theory has four
component parts.
Key Components of SLT:
1. Differential Association
- Refers to direct social interaction with members of a primary group and less concrete but
no less important identifications with more distal groups, the latter also serving as sources of
learning. These are not only peer associations, but rather the sum total of all social
influences including family, school teachers and other public officials, neighbours, and
religious figures.
2. Imitation:
, - Occurs when an individual copies the behavior of others, perhaps not completely
understanding why the behavior is important or in what ways or even when it might be
rewarding to the actor. Imitation is the most basic form of learning.
3. Definitions: - Serve as guideposts for behavior, good and bad, rewarding and punishing.
4. Differential Reinforcement:
- Exists in both social and non-social forms; such reinforcements are preventive or
prospective in nature, suggesting to the actor whether the behavior guided by those
definitions is likely to be rewarded or punished, even if that reward is only physiological in
nature.
Individuals turn to crimes, “because of contacts with criminal patterns and also because of
isolation from anti-criminal patterns.” Akers took Sutherland’s DAT and provided a detailed
explanation of the mechanisms by which certain definitions become an integral part of a
person’s decision-making processes. Sutherland’s rather vague “principle of differential
association,” which stated that delinquency ensues when the definitions favouring criminal
conduct overwhelmed those definitions favouring lawful conduct, was recast in an operant
conditioning framework.
Vicarious Reinforcement is a key concept in Social Learning Theory that explains how
individuals learn behaviors by observing others being rewarded or punished for their
actions. This type of reinforcement does not involve direct personal experience but occurs
through indirect learning.
When a person observes someone else receiving a positive consequence (reward) for a
specific behavior, they are more likely to imitate that behavior in the hope of achieving a
similar reward. Similarly, observing others being punished for certain actions can discourage
an observer from performing those actions.
Criticism of Social Learning Theory
1. Overemphasis on Nurture: Critics argue that it underestimates the role of biological
and genetic factors in behavior.
2. Difficulty in Measuring Learning: Observing and quantifying the processes of
attention, retention, and motivation can be subjective.
3. Focus on Observable Behaviors: The theory may overlook unobservable processes,
such as unconscious influences.
4. Ignores Individual Differences: Not everyone exposed to criminal behavior becomes
a criminal; personal traits and situational factors also matter.
Example from Pakistan
• Juvenile Delinquency: In Pakistan, young individuals in certain areas may learn
criminal behaviors, such as theft or drug dealing, by observing older peers or family
members involved in illegal activities.
, • Radicalization and Extremism: Exposure to extremist ideologies through social
groups or online platforms can lead to radical behaviors, as individuals observe and
imitate the norms of such groups.
Application in Criminology
Social Learning Theory has been widely applied to explain criminal behavior. It argues that:
• Criminal behavior is learned through interactions with peers, family, or media.
• Delinquent behavior is reinforced when it leads to material gain, social acceptance,
or thrill.
• Negative reinforcement, such as avoiding punishment or criticism, also contributes to
learning deviant behaviors.
Here is the simplified text based on the uploaded content, with additional examples,
criticisms, and other relevant points:
Social Conflict Theories
Social conflict theories view crime as a result of the conflicts that exist within society. These
theories are inspired by the works of Karl Marx and later interpreted by scholars like Bonger
and Dahrendorf. They propose that crime is caused by class conflict, and laws are created
by those in power to protect their own interests. This aligns with Quinney's concept of the
"social reality of crime", which states that all criminal acts have political undertones.
Causes of Social Conflict
Social conflicts arise due to:
1. Differences in lifestyles of people belonging to different social groups.
2. Socio-economic disparities.
3. Unequal access to resources.
4. Varied interpretations of rules of behavior.
5. Contradictions between society and governmental structures.
Key Assumptions of Social Conflict Theory
1. Human self-interest drives behavior.
2. Societies operate under perpetual scarcity of resources, leading to competition.
