Test Bank For Human Genetics, 13th Edition All Chapte
m m m m m m m m
rs -
m
Lecturem1:m-mmmANSWER mm
-mDNAmismpackagedmasmchromatin,mchromosomesmbecomemvisiblemduringmmitosis.m-
mmmANSWER mm
Homologues-m(maternal mandmpaternal mformsmof msamemchromosome)m-mmmANSWER mm
Meiosis:mG1,mS,mG2,mM.mBeforemreplication mphase,mchromosomesmhavemonemchromati
dmandmaftermreplication,mchromosomesmhavem2msistermchromatids,mheldmtogethermatmthe
mcentromere.mEndsmwith m4mdaughtermcellsmwith m1mchromatid meach.m-mmmANSWER mm
Keymdifferencesmfrommmitosis:mHomologsmpairm(ProphasemI),mSistermcentromeresmactma
smamsinglemcentromerem(MetaphasemI),mSistermchromatidsmremainmattachedm(Anaphase
mI),mMeiosismImismamreduction mdivision-
mmeaningmstartmmeiosismImwithm46munitsmandmendmmeiosismImwith m23munitsm(m2mchromati
dsmin meachmhaploidmdaughtermcells),mMeiosismIImismanmequational mdivisionm(identical mtom
mitosis).m-mmmANSWER mm
Recombination moccursminmProphasemI.mCrossingmovermandmrecombmismExchangemofmho
mologousmsegmentsmbetween mnon-sistermchromatids.m-mmmANSWER mm
HomologuesmmovemapartmduringmanaphasemI-
disjunction.m223mpossiblemcombinationsmofmchromosomes.mIn mcytokinesismI,mCellsmdivi
demintomtwomhaploidmdaughtermcells.mOnemcell mreceivesmmostmof mthemcytoplasmmandmth
emothermbecomesmthemfirstmpolarmbodymwhichmdoesn'tmgomthrough mMeiosismII.mMeiosismI
mendsmaftermovulation.mNonmdysjunction minmmeiosismI:mcanmcausemproblemsmlikemTrisom
ym21.m-mmmANSWER mm
-
Brief minterphasembetweenmfirstmandmsecondmmeioticmdivisions.mNomSmphasemoccursmin m
MeiosismII.m-mmmANSWER mm
-
In mthemsecondmmeioticmdivisionmamsecondmpolarmbodymformsmduringmoogenesis.mIn moog
enesis,meggmismarrestedmin mmetaphasemIImuntil mfertilization.m-mmmANSWER mm
AftermMeiosismtheremismamReductionmof mchromosomemnumberm2nn.m(diploidmvs.mhaploid
mcells)-
mNotation m'n'mhasmtomdomwithmamountmofmDNA m(#of mnucleotides),mnotmthemnecessarilymth
em#mof mchromosomes.m-mmmANSWER mm
,Lecturem2:mPatternsmof mInheritancem-mmmANSWER mm
Medelian mInheritance-
mdetermined mbymamsinglemmajormgene.mBasedmonmindependentmassortment.mDihybrid mcr
ossm(2mgenotypes)mwithmry,mRy,mrY,mRymsetmupmonmbothmsidesphenotypicmratiomof m9:3:3:
1-
yellow mround,mgreenmround,myellow mwrinkled,mgreenmwrinkled,mIf mgetm9:3:3:1myoumknow
mthatmsegregation mismindependent.m-mmmANSWER mm
Multifactorial minheritance-multiplemgeneticmandmnon-geneticmfactorsminvolvedm-
mmmANSWER mm
Compoundmheterozygous:mhasmtwomdifferentmmutantmallelesmformamcharacterm-
mmmANSWER mm
Linkage-
2mgenesmphysicallymnearmeachmothermonmamchromosomemwill mnotmassortmrandomlyminmm
eiosis.mTightlymlinked:mwill mgetm2mtypesmof mgametesmex.mPLmandmpl.mUnlinked:mwillmgetm4
mtypesmof mgametesmPL,mPl,mpL,mpl.m-mmmANSWER mm
Themfrequencymofmrecombinationmbetweenmtwomgenesmismproportionalmtomthemdistancem
between mthemgenes.mThemclosermthemgenesmaremonmthemchromosomemthemlessmlikelymcr
ossingmovermoccurs.mLinkagemmap:m1%mrecombinationm=m1mmapmunitm=m1mcentiMorgan
m(cM),mMapmdistancesmaremadditive.m-mmmANSWER mm
Themnon-
randommassociation mbetweenmallelesmatmtwomlocationsmonmamchromosomemismcalledmlin
kagemdisequilibrium.mIf mthemfrequencymof mchromosomesmwith mAB=Ab=aB=abmthenmthem
genesmareminmequilibrium.mIf mfrequencymof m1mallelemismseenmmorem(AmmoremthanmBmforme
x)mthen mgenesmaremin mlinkagemdisequilibrium.m-mmmANSWER mm
Autosomal mdominantminheritancemExamples:m-mmmANSWER mm
Achondroplasia-
mFGFR3 mmutations,mAlwaysmfull mpenetrance mwithmachondroplasia m(somnormal mparentsm
havemamchildmwith maplasiamthenmit'smamnew mmutation).mHeterozygousmb/cmhomozygotes
musuallymdiemin muterom-mmmANSWER mm
Neurofibromatosis-mNF1m(neurofibromin)mandmNF2m(merlin)mmutations.m-mmmANSWERmm
Incompletemdominance-
mmixedmphenotype.mIn mcasesmofmdisease,mDominantmdisordersmaremmoremseveremin mho
mozygotesmthen minmheterozygotesm(termedmalsom"semidominant")mIe.mFamilial mHyperc
holesterolemia.m-mmmANSWER mm
Co-dominance-
mphenotypicmexpression mof mtwomdifferentmallelesmformamlocusmie.mBlood mtype.m-
mmmANSWER mm
,Autosomal mrecessiveminheritance:mExamples:mCysticmfibrosis,mTay-
Sachsmdisease,mSickle-cell mdiseasem-mmmANSWER mm
Pseudodominance:mtheminheritancemof manmautosomal mrecessivemtraitmmimicsmanmautos
omalmdominantmpattern m-mmmANSWER mm
Malesmaremhemizygousmwith mrespectmtomX-linkedmgenes.m-mmmANSWER mm
X-
linkedmdominantminheritance:mAffectedmfemalesmaremtwicemasmcommon masmaffectedmma
lesmbutmmalesmusuallymmoremseverelymaffectedmormthemdisordermmaymbemlethal minmmales
m(Rettmsyndrome).m-mmmANSWER mm
X-
linkedmrecessive:mincidencemismmuchmhigherminmmalesmandmaffectedmmalesmdomnotmusu
allymtransmitmthemdisordermunlessmmothermismamcarrier.mHeterozygotemfemalesmaremusu
allymunaffected,mbutmsomemmaymexpressmthemconditionmwithmvariablemseveritymasmdeter
minedmbymthempattern mofmXminactivation.mAmsignificantmproportionmofmisolatedmcasesmare
mduemtomnew mmutation m(Duchenne mmuscularmdystrophy-DMD).m-mmmANSWER mm
Pseudoautosomal minheritance-
mgroup mof mgenesmonmtheminactive mxmchromosomemaremNOTminactivated.mDiseasesmass
ociatedmwith mthesemgenesmareminheritedmsimilarmtomautosomal minheritance.m-
mmmANSWER mm
Samemamountmof mX-
linkedmgenemproductsmbetweenmmalesmandmfemalesmachievedmthroughmdosagemcompe
nsation.mLyonmHypothesismstatesmthatmtheminactivemXmismNOTmrandomlymchosenminmeac
h mcell mEx.mAmstructurallymabnormal mXmismpreferentiallyminactivated.mInactivationmismNOT
mcomplete-
msomemgenesmcanmescapeminactivation m(ie.mThosemwithmamfunctional mhomologmon mthem
Y).mInactivation mismNOTmpermanent-
mreversed min mdevelopmentmofmgermmcellsm(notmpassedmonmtomgametes).m-mmmANSWER mm
ThemkeymplayermismthemX-
linkedmgenemXIST→mXm(inactive)mspecificmtranscript.mXISTmismtranscribedmtomproducema
mnon-coding mRNA mthatm"coats" mthemX-
chromosomemandminactivatesmit.mXISTmismonlymexpressedmfrommtheminactivemX.mThemhis
tonesmon mthemcoatedmXmundergommethylationmwhichmcausesmthemchromosomemtomcond
ensem(heterochromatin),mformingmamBarrmbody.m-mmmANSWER mm
-
SomemgenesmdomnotmhavemYmhomologuemandmdomnotmundergominactivationm(e.g.msteroi
dmsulfatasemgene)m-mmmANSWER mm
-Random/skewedminactivationmmaymresultminmaffected/totallymhealthymheterozygotes.m-
mmmANSWER mm
Variablemexpression mof mX-
inactivation:mOn mboth mextremes,mamheterozygousmfemalemwith mrecessivemx-
, linkedmdiseasemcouldmmanifestmthemdisease.mIn mamcasemwith mamdominantmX-
linkedmtrait,min mwhichmalmostmallmofmamfemalesmXmchromosomesmwith mmutation misminacti
ve,mmightmnotmmanifestmthismdisease.mIdentical mtwinsmcouldmevenmhavemdiff mphenotype
smduemtomskewedmXminactivation.m-mmmANSWER mm
Mosaicism-
mX mchromosomeminactivation moccursmrandomlymandminactivation mpattern mismpassedmtom
cell mprogeny.mResult:mfunctionalmmosaicismminmwhichmfemalemismammosaicmwithmrespect
mtomexpression mof mgenesmon mX mchrom.mEx.mCalico mCat,mB m-mdominantmorange,mbm-
mrecessive mgenemblack,mGenesmformwhite:mautosomal.m-mmmANSWER mm
GeneticmHeterogeneitymcanmbemthemresultmof mLocusmHeterogeneitym,mAllelicmHeterogen
eity,mandmModifiermLoci.m-mmmANSWER mm
LocusmHeterogeneity-
mamsinglemdisorder,mtrait,mormpattern mofmtraitsmcausedmbymmutationsminmgenesmatmdifferen
tmchromosomal mloci.mEx.mretinitismpigmentosamhasmautosomal mdominant,mautosomal mre
cessive,mandmX-
linkedmorigins.mHowever,monlymonemmutantmlocusmismneededmformthemphenotypemtomman
ifestm-mmmANSWER mm
Allelicmheterogeneitym-
mManymgeneticmlocimpossessmmoremthanmonemmutantmallele.mIn mthemCFTR mgene,mnearly
m1400mmutationsmfound.mSomemmutationsmcausemclassical mCF m+mpancreaticminsufficien
cym+mcongenitalmabsencemofmvasmdeferens,mothersmcausemlungmdiseasemwith mnormal mp
ancreaticmfxn.mOthermcausemonlymmalemsterility.m-mmmANSWER mm
Modifiermgene:mAmgenemthatmaffectsmthemphenotypicmexpressionmof manothermgene.mSpe
cificmallelesmofmonemormmoremgenesm(modifiermgenes)mcan msometimesmdramaticallymmo
difymthemclinical mseveritymof mthemphenotypemproducedmbymmutationsmin mamdisease-
causingmgene.Thismsourcemof mclinicalmheterogeneitymismoftenmreferredmtomasmgeneticmba
ckground.mEx.mTwinsmwithmthemsamemmutationminmcysticmfibrosismbutmonemismseverelymsi
ckmandmonemonlymmoderatelymsick-mexplainedmbymmodifiermgenes.m-mmmANSWER mm
Candidatemloci mactingmasmmodifiersmformCFTR mmutations:TGFB1m(cytokinemtransformi
ngmgrowth mfactormbmandmMLB2m(Mannose-
bindingmlectin).mDifferentmallelesmof mthesemgenesmmodifymthemseveritymof mCFm-
mmmANSWER mm
Clinical/phenotypicmheterogeneity:mmultiplemphenotypesmofmonemsinglemgenemex.mUSH
2Amgene,mcodesmformproteinmimportantminmdevelopmentmof mtheminnermearmandmretina.mC
an mbemblindmandmdeaf m(typemIImUshermsyndrome)mormjustmblindm(RetinitismPigmentosa).m
-mmmANSWER mm
Othermfactorsmaffection mphenotypemincludemenvironmentalmfactorsmie.mG6PD mmutationm
OR msoil mpH mandmhydrangeamcolor.mAlsomSex-
relatedmfactorsmiemHemochromatosis,mAR,mcausedmbymironmoverload,mismlessmcommonm
in mfemalesmduemtomlowermiron mintake/menstrual miron mloss.m-mmmANSWER mm
m m m m m m m m
rs -
m
Lecturem1:m-mmmANSWER mm
-mDNAmismpackagedmasmchromatin,mchromosomesmbecomemvisiblemduringmmitosis.m-
mmmANSWER mm
Homologues-m(maternal mandmpaternal mformsmof msamemchromosome)m-mmmANSWER mm
Meiosis:mG1,mS,mG2,mM.mBeforemreplication mphase,mchromosomesmhavemonemchromati
dmandmaftermreplication,mchromosomesmhavem2msistermchromatids,mheldmtogethermatmthe
mcentromere.mEndsmwith m4mdaughtermcellsmwith m1mchromatid meach.m-mmmANSWER mm
Keymdifferencesmfrommmitosis:mHomologsmpairm(ProphasemI),mSistermcentromeresmactma
smamsinglemcentromerem(MetaphasemI),mSistermchromatidsmremainmattachedm(Anaphase
mI),mMeiosismImismamreduction mdivision-
mmeaningmstartmmeiosismImwithm46munitsmandmendmmeiosismImwith m23munitsm(m2mchromati
dsmin meachmhaploidmdaughtermcells),mMeiosismIImismanmequational mdivisionm(identical mtom
mitosis).m-mmmANSWER mm
Recombination moccursminmProphasemI.mCrossingmovermandmrecombmismExchangemofmho
mologousmsegmentsmbetween mnon-sistermchromatids.m-mmmANSWER mm
HomologuesmmovemapartmduringmanaphasemI-
disjunction.m223mpossiblemcombinationsmofmchromosomes.mIn mcytokinesismI,mCellsmdivi
demintomtwomhaploidmdaughtermcells.mOnemcell mreceivesmmostmof mthemcytoplasmmandmth
emothermbecomesmthemfirstmpolarmbodymwhichmdoesn'tmgomthrough mMeiosismII.mMeiosismI
mendsmaftermovulation.mNonmdysjunction minmmeiosismI:mcanmcausemproblemsmlikemTrisom
ym21.m-mmmANSWER mm
-
Brief minterphasembetweenmfirstmandmsecondmmeioticmdivisions.mNomSmphasemoccursmin m
MeiosismII.m-mmmANSWER mm
-
In mthemsecondmmeioticmdivisionmamsecondmpolarmbodymformsmduringmoogenesis.mIn moog
enesis,meggmismarrestedmin mmetaphasemIImuntil mfertilization.m-mmmANSWER mm
AftermMeiosismtheremismamReductionmof mchromosomemnumberm2nn.m(diploidmvs.mhaploid
mcells)-
mNotation m'n'mhasmtomdomwithmamountmofmDNA m(#of mnucleotides),mnotmthemnecessarilymth
em#mof mchromosomes.m-mmmANSWER mm
,Lecturem2:mPatternsmof mInheritancem-mmmANSWER mm
Medelian mInheritance-
mdetermined mbymamsinglemmajormgene.mBasedmonmindependentmassortment.mDihybrid mcr
ossm(2mgenotypes)mwithmry,mRy,mrY,mRymsetmupmonmbothmsidesphenotypicmratiomof m9:3:3:
1-
yellow mround,mgreenmround,myellow mwrinkled,mgreenmwrinkled,mIf mgetm9:3:3:1myoumknow
mthatmsegregation mismindependent.m-mmmANSWER mm
Multifactorial minheritance-multiplemgeneticmandmnon-geneticmfactorsminvolvedm-
mmmANSWER mm
Compoundmheterozygous:mhasmtwomdifferentmmutantmallelesmformamcharacterm-
mmmANSWER mm
Linkage-
2mgenesmphysicallymnearmeachmothermonmamchromosomemwill mnotmassortmrandomlyminmm
eiosis.mTightlymlinked:mwill mgetm2mtypesmof mgametesmex.mPLmandmpl.mUnlinked:mwillmgetm4
mtypesmof mgametesmPL,mPl,mpL,mpl.m-mmmANSWER mm
Themfrequencymofmrecombinationmbetweenmtwomgenesmismproportionalmtomthemdistancem
between mthemgenes.mThemclosermthemgenesmaremonmthemchromosomemthemlessmlikelymcr
ossingmovermoccurs.mLinkagemmap:m1%mrecombinationm=m1mmapmunitm=m1mcentiMorgan
m(cM),mMapmdistancesmaremadditive.m-mmmANSWER mm
Themnon-
randommassociation mbetweenmallelesmatmtwomlocationsmonmamchromosomemismcalledmlin
kagemdisequilibrium.mIf mthemfrequencymof mchromosomesmwith mAB=Ab=aB=abmthenmthem
genesmareminmequilibrium.mIf mfrequencymof m1mallelemismseenmmorem(AmmoremthanmBmforme
x)mthen mgenesmaremin mlinkagemdisequilibrium.m-mmmANSWER mm
Autosomal mdominantminheritancemExamples:m-mmmANSWER mm
Achondroplasia-
mFGFR3 mmutations,mAlwaysmfull mpenetrance mwithmachondroplasia m(somnormal mparentsm
havemamchildmwith maplasiamthenmit'smamnew mmutation).mHeterozygousmb/cmhomozygotes
musuallymdiemin muterom-mmmANSWER mm
Neurofibromatosis-mNF1m(neurofibromin)mandmNF2m(merlin)mmutations.m-mmmANSWERmm
Incompletemdominance-
mmixedmphenotype.mIn mcasesmofmdisease,mDominantmdisordersmaremmoremseveremin mho
mozygotesmthen minmheterozygotesm(termedmalsom"semidominant")mIe.mFamilial mHyperc
holesterolemia.m-mmmANSWER mm
Co-dominance-
mphenotypicmexpression mof mtwomdifferentmallelesmformamlocusmie.mBlood mtype.m-
mmmANSWER mm
,Autosomal mrecessiveminheritance:mExamples:mCysticmfibrosis,mTay-
Sachsmdisease,mSickle-cell mdiseasem-mmmANSWER mm
Pseudodominance:mtheminheritancemof manmautosomal mrecessivemtraitmmimicsmanmautos
omalmdominantmpattern m-mmmANSWER mm
Malesmaremhemizygousmwith mrespectmtomX-linkedmgenes.m-mmmANSWER mm
X-
linkedmdominantminheritance:mAffectedmfemalesmaremtwicemasmcommon masmaffectedmma
lesmbutmmalesmusuallymmoremseverelymaffectedmormthemdisordermmaymbemlethal minmmales
m(Rettmsyndrome).m-mmmANSWER mm
X-
linkedmrecessive:mincidencemismmuchmhigherminmmalesmandmaffectedmmalesmdomnotmusu
allymtransmitmthemdisordermunlessmmothermismamcarrier.mHeterozygotemfemalesmaremusu
allymunaffected,mbutmsomemmaymexpressmthemconditionmwithmvariablemseveritymasmdeter
minedmbymthempattern mofmXminactivation.mAmsignificantmproportionmofmisolatedmcasesmare
mduemtomnew mmutation m(Duchenne mmuscularmdystrophy-DMD).m-mmmANSWER mm
Pseudoautosomal minheritance-
mgroup mof mgenesmonmtheminactive mxmchromosomemaremNOTminactivated.mDiseasesmass
ociatedmwith mthesemgenesmareminheritedmsimilarmtomautosomal minheritance.m-
mmmANSWER mm
Samemamountmof mX-
linkedmgenemproductsmbetweenmmalesmandmfemalesmachievedmthroughmdosagemcompe
nsation.mLyonmHypothesismstatesmthatmtheminactivemXmismNOTmrandomlymchosenminmeac
h mcell mEx.mAmstructurallymabnormal mXmismpreferentiallyminactivated.mInactivationmismNOT
mcomplete-
msomemgenesmcanmescapeminactivation m(ie.mThosemwithmamfunctional mhomologmon mthem
Y).mInactivation mismNOTmpermanent-
mreversed min mdevelopmentmofmgermmcellsm(notmpassedmonmtomgametes).m-mmmANSWER mm
ThemkeymplayermismthemX-
linkedmgenemXIST→mXm(inactive)mspecificmtranscript.mXISTmismtranscribedmtomproducema
mnon-coding mRNA mthatm"coats" mthemX-
chromosomemandminactivatesmit.mXISTmismonlymexpressedmfrommtheminactivemX.mThemhis
tonesmon mthemcoatedmXmundergommethylationmwhichmcausesmthemchromosomemtomcond
ensem(heterochromatin),mformingmamBarrmbody.m-mmmANSWER mm
-
SomemgenesmdomnotmhavemYmhomologuemandmdomnotmundergominactivationm(e.g.msteroi
dmsulfatasemgene)m-mmmANSWER mm
-Random/skewedminactivationmmaymresultminmaffected/totallymhealthymheterozygotes.m-
mmmANSWER mm
Variablemexpression mof mX-
inactivation:mOn mboth mextremes,mamheterozygousmfemalemwith mrecessivemx-
, linkedmdiseasemcouldmmanifestmthemdisease.mIn mamcasemwith mamdominantmX-
linkedmtrait,min mwhichmalmostmallmofmamfemalesmXmchromosomesmwith mmutation misminacti
ve,mmightmnotmmanifestmthismdisease.mIdentical mtwinsmcouldmevenmhavemdiff mphenotype
smduemtomskewedmXminactivation.m-mmmANSWER mm
Mosaicism-
mX mchromosomeminactivation moccursmrandomlymandminactivation mpattern mismpassedmtom
cell mprogeny.mResult:mfunctionalmmosaicismminmwhichmfemalemismammosaicmwithmrespect
mtomexpression mof mgenesmon mX mchrom.mEx.mCalico mCat,mB m-mdominantmorange,mbm-
mrecessive mgenemblack,mGenesmformwhite:mautosomal.m-mmmANSWER mm
GeneticmHeterogeneitymcanmbemthemresultmof mLocusmHeterogeneitym,mAllelicmHeterogen
eity,mandmModifiermLoci.m-mmmANSWER mm
LocusmHeterogeneity-
mamsinglemdisorder,mtrait,mormpattern mofmtraitsmcausedmbymmutationsminmgenesmatmdifferen
tmchromosomal mloci.mEx.mretinitismpigmentosamhasmautosomal mdominant,mautosomal mre
cessive,mandmX-
linkedmorigins.mHowever,monlymonemmutantmlocusmismneededmformthemphenotypemtomman
ifestm-mmmANSWER mm
Allelicmheterogeneitym-
mManymgeneticmlocimpossessmmoremthanmonemmutantmallele.mIn mthemCFTR mgene,mnearly
m1400mmutationsmfound.mSomemmutationsmcausemclassical mCF m+mpancreaticminsufficien
cym+mcongenitalmabsencemofmvasmdeferens,mothersmcausemlungmdiseasemwith mnormal mp
ancreaticmfxn.mOthermcausemonlymmalemsterility.m-mmmANSWER mm
Modifiermgene:mAmgenemthatmaffectsmthemphenotypicmexpressionmof manothermgene.mSpe
cificmallelesmofmonemormmoremgenesm(modifiermgenes)mcan msometimesmdramaticallymmo
difymthemclinical mseveritymof mthemphenotypemproducedmbymmutationsmin mamdisease-
causingmgene.Thismsourcemof mclinicalmheterogeneitymismoftenmreferredmtomasmgeneticmba
ckground.mEx.mTwinsmwithmthemsamemmutationminmcysticmfibrosismbutmonemismseverelymsi
ckmandmonemonlymmoderatelymsick-mexplainedmbymmodifiermgenes.m-mmmANSWER mm
Candidatemloci mactingmasmmodifiersmformCFTR mmutations:TGFB1m(cytokinemtransformi
ngmgrowth mfactormbmandmMLB2m(Mannose-
bindingmlectin).mDifferentmallelesmof mthesemgenesmmodifymthemseveritymof mCFm-
mmmANSWER mm
Clinical/phenotypicmheterogeneity:mmultiplemphenotypesmofmonemsinglemgenemex.mUSH
2Amgene,mcodesmformproteinmimportantminmdevelopmentmof mtheminnermearmandmretina.mC
an mbemblindmandmdeaf m(typemIImUshermsyndrome)mormjustmblindm(RetinitismPigmentosa).m
-mmmANSWER mm
Othermfactorsmaffection mphenotypemincludemenvironmentalmfactorsmie.mG6PD mmutationm
OR msoil mpH mandmhydrangeamcolor.mAlsomSex-
relatedmfactorsmiemHemochromatosis,mAR,mcausedmbymironmoverload,mismlessmcommonm
in mfemalesmduemtomlowermiron mintake/menstrual miron mloss.m-mmmANSWER mm
