IAl psychology: methods
Methods in psychology (psychological skills)
Types of data......................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Qualitative and quantitative.............................................................................................................................................. 4
Primary and secondary data............................................................................................................................................ 4
Sampling techniques............................................................................................................................................................4
Random sampling............................................................................................................................................................ 4
Stratified sampling............................................................................................................................................................4
Opportunity sampling....................................................................................................................................................... 4
Volunteer sampling...........................................................................................................................................................4
Experimental and research designs................................................................................................................................... 5
Independent measures.....................................................................................................................................................5
Repeated measures......................................................................................................................................................... 5
Matched pairs...................................................................................................................................................................5
Hypotheses............................................................................................................................................................................5
Experimental hypothesis.................................................................................................................................................. 5
Null hypothesis................................................................................................................................................................. 5
Alternative Hypotheses.................................................................................................................................................... 5
Self-reporting data: questionnaires and interviews.......................................................................................................... 6
Questionnaires................................................................................................................................................................. 6
Types of questions:.................................................................................................................................................... 6
Issues with questionnaire design............................................................................................................................... 6
Social desirability.................................................................................................................................................6
Question construction..........................................................................................................................................6
Questionnaire reliability....................................................................................................................................... 7
Questionnaire validity.......................................................................................................................................... 7
Interviews......................................................................................................................................................................... 7
Structured interviews................................................................................................................................................. 7
Semi-structured interviews.........................................................................................................................................7
Unstructured interview............................................................................................................................................... 7
Researcher effects........................................................................................................................................................... 8
Experiments.......................................................................................................................................................................... 8
Experimental methods......................................................................................................................................................8
Laboratory experiments............................................................................................................................................. 8
Field experiments.......................................................................................................................................................8
Variables...........................................................................................................................................................................8
Observations......................................................................................................................................................................... 8
Types of observation........................................................................................................................................................ 8
Structured.................................................................................................................................................................. 8
Naturalistic................................................................................................................................................................. 8
Participant.................................................................................................................................................................. 8
Overt....................................................................................................................................................................8
Covert.................................................................................................................................................................. 9
Non-participant...........................................................................................................................................................9
Gathering the data............................................................................................................................................................9
Tallying....................................................................................................................................................................... 9
Event sampling.......................................................................................................................................................... 9
,IAl psychology: methods
Time sampling............................................................................................................................................................9
Correlation research.............................................................................................................................................................9
Types of correlation.......................................................................................................................................................... 9
Issues with correlations (cause and effect)...................................................................................................................... 9
Additional research methods and techniques................................................................................................................. 10
Twin studies...................................................................................................................................................10
Use of case studies in different areas of psychology..................................................................................................... 10
Brain-damaged patients related to research into memory...................................................................... 10
The case of Henry Molaison (HM)........................................................................................................................... 10
Freud's use of the case study as a research method..............................................................................12
Evaluation of case studies....................................................................................................................................... 12
Content analysis.............................................................................................................................................................12
Clinical interviewing to understand world of child in developmental psychology............................................................13
Ethnographic field work in developmental psychology...................................................................................................13
Randomized controlled trials (RCT) in clinical psychology.............................................................................................13
Neuroimaging (brain scanning)...................................................................................................................................... 13
CAT: Computerized Axial Tomography.................................................................................................................... 14
PET: Positron Emission Tomography.......................................................................................................................14
fMRI: functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging....................................................................................................... 14
Cross-cultural research.................................................................................................................................................. 14
Nature vs nurture issues.......................................................................................................................................... 14
Use of meta-analysis............................................................................................................................................... 15
Research in criminal psychology....................................................................................................................................15
Mock jury research...................................................................................................................................................15
Health and Care Professions Council (HCPC)...............................................................................................................15
Guidelines for clinical practitioners.......................................................................................................................... 15
Control issues..................................................................................................................................................................... 15
Experimenter effects.......................................................................................................................................................15
Demand characteristics..................................................................................................................................................16
Operationalizing variables.............................................................................................................................................. 16
Descriptive statistics: Analysis of quantitative data (List A)..........................................................................................16
Measures of central tendency........................................................................................................................................ 16
Data tables..................................................................................................................................................................... 17
Frequency table....................................................................................................................................................... 17
Raw data table......................................................................................................................................................... 17
Summary table.........................................................................................................................................................17
Graphical presentation................................................................................................................................................... 17
Bar chart.................................................................................................................................................................. 17
Histogram.................................................................................................................................................................17
Mathematical calculations.............................................................................................................................................. 17
Percentages.............................................................................................................................................................17
Ratios.......................................................................................................................................................................17
Fractions.................................................................................................................................................................. 17
Measures of dispersion (types)...................................................................................................................................... 17
Range...................................................................................................................................................................... 18
Standard deviation (SD)...........................................................................................................................................18
Normal distribution......................................................................................................................................................... 18
Normal and skewed distribution curves:........................................................................................................18
, IAl psychology: methods
Sense checking data...................................................................................................................................................... 18
Decision-making and interpretation of Inferential statistics (List B)............................................................................. 19
Calculating observed value............................................................................................................................................ 19
Critical value...................................................................................................................................................................19
Levels of measurements................................................................................................................................................ 19
Ratio level data........................................................................................................................................................ 19
Interval level data.....................................................................................................................................................19
Ordinal level data..................................................................................................................................................... 20
Nominal level data................................................................................................................................................... 20
Wilcoxon signed ranks test for difference.......................................................................................................................20
Spearman's rank............................................................................................................................................................ 20
Correlation coefficient formula................................................................................................................................. 20
Chi-squared distribution................................................................................................................................................. 21
Types of errors......................................................................................................................................................... 21
Evaluations..........................................................................................................................................................................22
Generalizability...............................................................................................................................................................22
Reliability........................................................................................................................................................................ 22
Application......................................................................................................................................................................22
Validity............................................................................................................................................................................ 22
Ecological....................................................................................................................................................................... 22
Ethics..............................................................................................................................................................................22
Objectivity.......................................................................................................................................................................22
Credibility........................................................................................................................................................................22
Subjectivity..................................................................................................................................................................... 22
Analysis of qualitative data................................................................................................................................................22
Thematic analysis...........................................................................................................................................................22
Published psychological research....................................................................................................................................23
Conventional structure................................................................................................................................................... 23
Process of a peer reviews.............................................................................................................................................. 24
Ethical issues in research using humans........................................................................................................................ 24
Ethical guidelines........................................................................................................................................................... 24
BPS Code of Ethics and Conduct.................................................................................................................................. 24
Importance of ethical guidelines.............................................................................................................................. 25
Ethics and the UNCRC (1989)....................................................................................................................................... 25
Participation vs protection rights and research........................................................................................................ 26
Getting data from children........................................................................................................................................26
Ethical issues with child participants........................................................................................................................26
Risk management when carrying out research in psychology....................................................................................... 26
Risk assessment......................................................................................................................................................26
Animal research and ethics............................................................................................................................................... 27
Scientific Procedure Act of 1986 with the Home Office regulations for animal use........................................................27
Ethical issues regarding use of animals in laboratory experiments................................................................................27
Results used in relation to humans................................................................................................................................ 28
Methods in psychology (psychological skills)
Types of data......................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Qualitative and quantitative.............................................................................................................................................. 4
Primary and secondary data............................................................................................................................................ 4
Sampling techniques............................................................................................................................................................4
Random sampling............................................................................................................................................................ 4
Stratified sampling............................................................................................................................................................4
Opportunity sampling....................................................................................................................................................... 4
Volunteer sampling...........................................................................................................................................................4
Experimental and research designs................................................................................................................................... 5
Independent measures.....................................................................................................................................................5
Repeated measures......................................................................................................................................................... 5
Matched pairs...................................................................................................................................................................5
Hypotheses............................................................................................................................................................................5
Experimental hypothesis.................................................................................................................................................. 5
Null hypothesis................................................................................................................................................................. 5
Alternative Hypotheses.................................................................................................................................................... 5
Self-reporting data: questionnaires and interviews.......................................................................................................... 6
Questionnaires................................................................................................................................................................. 6
Types of questions:.................................................................................................................................................... 6
Issues with questionnaire design............................................................................................................................... 6
Social desirability.................................................................................................................................................6
Question construction..........................................................................................................................................6
Questionnaire reliability....................................................................................................................................... 7
Questionnaire validity.......................................................................................................................................... 7
Interviews......................................................................................................................................................................... 7
Structured interviews................................................................................................................................................. 7
Semi-structured interviews.........................................................................................................................................7
Unstructured interview............................................................................................................................................... 7
Researcher effects........................................................................................................................................................... 8
Experiments.......................................................................................................................................................................... 8
Experimental methods......................................................................................................................................................8
Laboratory experiments............................................................................................................................................. 8
Field experiments.......................................................................................................................................................8
Variables...........................................................................................................................................................................8
Observations......................................................................................................................................................................... 8
Types of observation........................................................................................................................................................ 8
Structured.................................................................................................................................................................. 8
Naturalistic................................................................................................................................................................. 8
Participant.................................................................................................................................................................. 8
Overt....................................................................................................................................................................8
Covert.................................................................................................................................................................. 9
Non-participant...........................................................................................................................................................9
Gathering the data............................................................................................................................................................9
Tallying....................................................................................................................................................................... 9
Event sampling.......................................................................................................................................................... 9
,IAl psychology: methods
Time sampling............................................................................................................................................................9
Correlation research.............................................................................................................................................................9
Types of correlation.......................................................................................................................................................... 9
Issues with correlations (cause and effect)...................................................................................................................... 9
Additional research methods and techniques................................................................................................................. 10
Twin studies...................................................................................................................................................10
Use of case studies in different areas of psychology..................................................................................................... 10
Brain-damaged patients related to research into memory...................................................................... 10
The case of Henry Molaison (HM)........................................................................................................................... 10
Freud's use of the case study as a research method..............................................................................12
Evaluation of case studies....................................................................................................................................... 12
Content analysis.............................................................................................................................................................12
Clinical interviewing to understand world of child in developmental psychology............................................................13
Ethnographic field work in developmental psychology...................................................................................................13
Randomized controlled trials (RCT) in clinical psychology.............................................................................................13
Neuroimaging (brain scanning)...................................................................................................................................... 13
CAT: Computerized Axial Tomography.................................................................................................................... 14
PET: Positron Emission Tomography.......................................................................................................................14
fMRI: functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging....................................................................................................... 14
Cross-cultural research.................................................................................................................................................. 14
Nature vs nurture issues.......................................................................................................................................... 14
Use of meta-analysis............................................................................................................................................... 15
Research in criminal psychology....................................................................................................................................15
Mock jury research...................................................................................................................................................15
Health and Care Professions Council (HCPC)...............................................................................................................15
Guidelines for clinical practitioners.......................................................................................................................... 15
Control issues..................................................................................................................................................................... 15
Experimenter effects.......................................................................................................................................................15
Demand characteristics..................................................................................................................................................16
Operationalizing variables.............................................................................................................................................. 16
Descriptive statistics: Analysis of quantitative data (List A)..........................................................................................16
Measures of central tendency........................................................................................................................................ 16
Data tables..................................................................................................................................................................... 17
Frequency table....................................................................................................................................................... 17
Raw data table......................................................................................................................................................... 17
Summary table.........................................................................................................................................................17
Graphical presentation................................................................................................................................................... 17
Bar chart.................................................................................................................................................................. 17
Histogram.................................................................................................................................................................17
Mathematical calculations.............................................................................................................................................. 17
Percentages.............................................................................................................................................................17
Ratios.......................................................................................................................................................................17
Fractions.................................................................................................................................................................. 17
Measures of dispersion (types)...................................................................................................................................... 17
Range...................................................................................................................................................................... 18
Standard deviation (SD)...........................................................................................................................................18
Normal distribution......................................................................................................................................................... 18
Normal and skewed distribution curves:........................................................................................................18
, IAl psychology: methods
Sense checking data...................................................................................................................................................... 18
Decision-making and interpretation of Inferential statistics (List B)............................................................................. 19
Calculating observed value............................................................................................................................................ 19
Critical value...................................................................................................................................................................19
Levels of measurements................................................................................................................................................ 19
Ratio level data........................................................................................................................................................ 19
Interval level data.....................................................................................................................................................19
Ordinal level data..................................................................................................................................................... 20
Nominal level data................................................................................................................................................... 20
Wilcoxon signed ranks test for difference.......................................................................................................................20
Spearman's rank............................................................................................................................................................ 20
Correlation coefficient formula................................................................................................................................. 20
Chi-squared distribution................................................................................................................................................. 21
Types of errors......................................................................................................................................................... 21
Evaluations..........................................................................................................................................................................22
Generalizability...............................................................................................................................................................22
Reliability........................................................................................................................................................................ 22
Application......................................................................................................................................................................22
Validity............................................................................................................................................................................ 22
Ecological....................................................................................................................................................................... 22
Ethics..............................................................................................................................................................................22
Objectivity.......................................................................................................................................................................22
Credibility........................................................................................................................................................................22
Subjectivity..................................................................................................................................................................... 22
Analysis of qualitative data................................................................................................................................................22
Thematic analysis...........................................................................................................................................................22
Published psychological research....................................................................................................................................23
Conventional structure................................................................................................................................................... 23
Process of a peer reviews.............................................................................................................................................. 24
Ethical issues in research using humans........................................................................................................................ 24
Ethical guidelines........................................................................................................................................................... 24
BPS Code of Ethics and Conduct.................................................................................................................................. 24
Importance of ethical guidelines.............................................................................................................................. 25
Ethics and the UNCRC (1989)....................................................................................................................................... 25
Participation vs protection rights and research........................................................................................................ 26
Getting data from children........................................................................................................................................26
Ethical issues with child participants........................................................................................................................26
Risk management when carrying out research in psychology....................................................................................... 26
Risk assessment......................................................................................................................................................26
Animal research and ethics............................................................................................................................................... 27
Scientific Procedure Act of 1986 with the Home Office regulations for animal use........................................................27
Ethical issues regarding use of animals in laboratory experiments................................................................................27
Results used in relation to humans................................................................................................................................ 28
