Chapter 4: Inventing the computer.
How World War 2 fuelled computer development
WW2 was scientific war, science and technology were key to winning battles. Famous project from
WW2: Manhattan Project (created the atomic bomb). The bomb ended the war, but another invention
the radar helped win the war. The computers that existed when the war started were basic, analogue
machines (differential analyser), digital ones (punched cards), and human computers who did
calculations by hand. Punched-card machines are for data processing and storage that operate by
reading and writing information onto cards with holes punched in them. More advanced like Harvard
Mark I, were still being developed. In US the OSRD, led by vannevar bush, managed the scientific
war effort. Bush was MIT professor and inventor of differential analyser. Type of analogue computer
to create firing tables, calculations that helped determine the best settings for artillery to hit its target
accurately.
Moore school and Ballistics Research
Moore school’s job was to make calculations for US army new weapons. Bush differential analyser
was used for this purpose. Ballistics Research Laboratory (BRL) did these calculations. Herman H.
Goldstine was important and later helped develop modern computers. Moore school and BRL worked
together and had differential analysers. Moore School had training program to teach physicists and
mathematicians. Graduates from this school, John Mauchly and Arthur Burks stayed to help invent
modern computer. Another program was for women to operate desk calculators. 200 women
participated. Differential analyser, Annie, was used constantly for new artillery (large powerful
weapons) but it took a month and 100 people to make one table, like how to use them and how to aim
them and you needed the firing tables for this.
Atanasoff-Berry computer
Mauchly wanted to build an electronic computer to speed up these calculations. His wife, who taught
woman computers, helped him understand the problem. Meanwhile, john Atanasoff and Clifford berry
were working on an electronic computer at Iowa state university, the Atanasoff-berry computer
(ABC). Mauchly met Atanasoff and visited his computer. Some think Atanasoff is true father of
electronic computer, though it is unclear how much Mauchly borrowed from his ideas.
Birth of ENIAC and EDVAC
At the Moore school, Mauchly and Eckert teamed up to develop an electronic computer. In 1942,
Mauchly wrote a proposal for high-speed computer, but it was ignored. Goldstine helped get the
proposal accepted and in 1943 the ENIAC project started. Many doubted the 18000 vacuum tubes to
work reliably. They reduced the voltage and kept the tubes always on. ENIAC had flaws like taking
days or hours to reprogram, when John von Neumann joined the project, he helped redesign it, this led
to EDVAC. EDVAC would store both instructions and data.
Engineers vs Logicians
With the development of EDVAC, a split formed between the engineers (Eckert and Mauchly) and the
logicians (von Neumann, goldstine and burks). Caused disagreements and they broke up. Von
Neumann’s report on EDVAC, which spread widely, caused even more tension.
Aftermath and Legacy
,After the war computers gained huge interest. ENIAC was competed in 1946 but this was after the
war. Eckert and Mauchly started their own company and von Neumann, Goldstine and Burks went to
Princeton. Moore school started a summer school to teach stored-program computing, ensuring that
the knowledge spread. Helped scientists and mathematicians learn about computers.
Britain’s Post-War computer research
After WW2, Britain wasn’t too damaged to start a serious computer research program. The first two
operational computers in the world were built in England, despite limited funding which forced them
to be efficient.
The Manchester Computer
The first was Manchester computer. Max Newman, who had worked on the Colossus computer during
the war, got funding to build a computer like EDVAC. Worked with FC Williams, who focused on
solving the memory problem, a major challenge in computer development. Williams created a
memory system using cathode-ray tubes.
Maurice Wilkes and EDSAC
Maurice Wilkes from Cambridge University got a copy of EDVAC report, thanks to Comrie, the first
British visitor to the Moore school. Wilkes then attended the Moore Summer School, even though he
arrived with only two weeks left in the course. After MIT and Harvard visit, he realised their
computers were becoming outdated. He aimed to make his staff experts in using computers rather
than building them. This led to EDSAC modelled after EDVAC. It was a slow process, but EDSAC
became the first practical stored-program computer using mercury delay-line memory.
Timeline
1820: Charles Babbage invented the Difference Engine, the first automatic computing machine.
1843: Ada Lovelace wrote a detailed description of Babbage's Analytical Engine.
1874: The Central Telegraph Office in London was a hub for routing telegrams.
Early 1900s: The Burroughs Adding Machine Company led in manufacturing complex adder-lister
machines.
1911: Thomas J. Watson Sr. became the general manager of the Tabulating Machine Company, later
renamed IBM.
1930s: Vannevar Bush developed the Differential Analyzer, the most powerful analog computer of the
time.
1943: The Harvard Mark I, an early powerful calculator, started operation.
1946: ENIAC, capable of 5,000 operations per second, was developed.
1944-1945: John von Neumann worked on the design for a new computer, leading to the stored-
program concept.
1948: The "baby machine" at Manchester University was the first stored-program computer to
operate.
1949: The EDSAC at Cambridge University became the first full-scale stored-program computer in
regular use.
, 1952: UNIVAC, America's first commercial electronic computer, gained fame for predicting the
presidential election results.
1956: Thomas J. Watson Jr. took over IBM, leading it to become the world's top mainframe computer
supplier.
1959: IBM announced the model 1401, a fast and reliable second-generation computer using
transistors.
1964: IBM's System/360 was introduced, dominating the computer industry for decades.
Summary
WW2’s need for advanced calculations drove the invention of the moder computer. With figures like
mauchly, Eckert and von Neumann, they made groundbreaking advancement. After the war, Britain
made significant strides in computer development. Manchester computer and EDSAC were among the
first operational computers. Maurice Wilkes and FC Williams solved major technicla challenges, such
as memory storage, leading to the creation of practical and influential computers. These early efforts
laid the groundwork for the rapid advancement of computer technology in the following decades.
Chapter 5: the computer becomes a business machine.
In the 1950’s, people started using computers not just for solving math problems, but help businesses
handle a lot more information. IBM noticed this change around 1951. They changed their plans,
focused on making these new types of computers, and soon became the most important company in
the computer world. After WW2, US had the biggest market for computers. This helped american
companies become leaders in this industry. Three types of companies started making computers:
electronics companies, office machine companies and new start up companies.
More than optimistic: UNIVAC and BINAC
Eckert and Mauchly saw that computers could be used for business. They made a deal with the bureau
of census to build a computer called UNIVAC, which ended up costing much more than they
expected. They also worked on BINAC (airborn computer), to stay in business. They kept working on
UNIVAC. They tried to sell it to other companies but they needed more money. A company called
American Totalisator invested in them. When the investor Strauss died in a place accident, they lost
that support.
IBM’s smart moves
Meanwhile, IBM, a big competitor, was also working on computers. They were working on
electornics and computers in the 1940s. they were careful about entering the computer market, seeing
as they weren’t sure it would be profitable. IBM wanted to make their products better by adding
electronics. Started with Model 601, then upgraded to Model 604, which became very popular. They
also built SSEC, mostly for show and very expensive. They made more computers like the MDC and
the TPM. MDC was cheaper and used magnetic drums for memory. TPM used magnetic tape, similar
to UNIVAC, but IBM didn’t sell these computers right away. They focused on Defense calculator,
which was good for science but not for business data.
How World War 2 fuelled computer development
WW2 was scientific war, science and technology were key to winning battles. Famous project from
WW2: Manhattan Project (created the atomic bomb). The bomb ended the war, but another invention
the radar helped win the war. The computers that existed when the war started were basic, analogue
machines (differential analyser), digital ones (punched cards), and human computers who did
calculations by hand. Punched-card machines are for data processing and storage that operate by
reading and writing information onto cards with holes punched in them. More advanced like Harvard
Mark I, were still being developed. In US the OSRD, led by vannevar bush, managed the scientific
war effort. Bush was MIT professor and inventor of differential analyser. Type of analogue computer
to create firing tables, calculations that helped determine the best settings for artillery to hit its target
accurately.
Moore school and Ballistics Research
Moore school’s job was to make calculations for US army new weapons. Bush differential analyser
was used for this purpose. Ballistics Research Laboratory (BRL) did these calculations. Herman H.
Goldstine was important and later helped develop modern computers. Moore school and BRL worked
together and had differential analysers. Moore School had training program to teach physicists and
mathematicians. Graduates from this school, John Mauchly and Arthur Burks stayed to help invent
modern computer. Another program was for women to operate desk calculators. 200 women
participated. Differential analyser, Annie, was used constantly for new artillery (large powerful
weapons) but it took a month and 100 people to make one table, like how to use them and how to aim
them and you needed the firing tables for this.
Atanasoff-Berry computer
Mauchly wanted to build an electronic computer to speed up these calculations. His wife, who taught
woman computers, helped him understand the problem. Meanwhile, john Atanasoff and Clifford berry
were working on an electronic computer at Iowa state university, the Atanasoff-berry computer
(ABC). Mauchly met Atanasoff and visited his computer. Some think Atanasoff is true father of
electronic computer, though it is unclear how much Mauchly borrowed from his ideas.
Birth of ENIAC and EDVAC
At the Moore school, Mauchly and Eckert teamed up to develop an electronic computer. In 1942,
Mauchly wrote a proposal for high-speed computer, but it was ignored. Goldstine helped get the
proposal accepted and in 1943 the ENIAC project started. Many doubted the 18000 vacuum tubes to
work reliably. They reduced the voltage and kept the tubes always on. ENIAC had flaws like taking
days or hours to reprogram, when John von Neumann joined the project, he helped redesign it, this led
to EDVAC. EDVAC would store both instructions and data.
Engineers vs Logicians
With the development of EDVAC, a split formed between the engineers (Eckert and Mauchly) and the
logicians (von Neumann, goldstine and burks). Caused disagreements and they broke up. Von
Neumann’s report on EDVAC, which spread widely, caused even more tension.
Aftermath and Legacy
,After the war computers gained huge interest. ENIAC was competed in 1946 but this was after the
war. Eckert and Mauchly started their own company and von Neumann, Goldstine and Burks went to
Princeton. Moore school started a summer school to teach stored-program computing, ensuring that
the knowledge spread. Helped scientists and mathematicians learn about computers.
Britain’s Post-War computer research
After WW2, Britain wasn’t too damaged to start a serious computer research program. The first two
operational computers in the world were built in England, despite limited funding which forced them
to be efficient.
The Manchester Computer
The first was Manchester computer. Max Newman, who had worked on the Colossus computer during
the war, got funding to build a computer like EDVAC. Worked with FC Williams, who focused on
solving the memory problem, a major challenge in computer development. Williams created a
memory system using cathode-ray tubes.
Maurice Wilkes and EDSAC
Maurice Wilkes from Cambridge University got a copy of EDVAC report, thanks to Comrie, the first
British visitor to the Moore school. Wilkes then attended the Moore Summer School, even though he
arrived with only two weeks left in the course. After MIT and Harvard visit, he realised their
computers were becoming outdated. He aimed to make his staff experts in using computers rather
than building them. This led to EDSAC modelled after EDVAC. It was a slow process, but EDSAC
became the first practical stored-program computer using mercury delay-line memory.
Timeline
1820: Charles Babbage invented the Difference Engine, the first automatic computing machine.
1843: Ada Lovelace wrote a detailed description of Babbage's Analytical Engine.
1874: The Central Telegraph Office in London was a hub for routing telegrams.
Early 1900s: The Burroughs Adding Machine Company led in manufacturing complex adder-lister
machines.
1911: Thomas J. Watson Sr. became the general manager of the Tabulating Machine Company, later
renamed IBM.
1930s: Vannevar Bush developed the Differential Analyzer, the most powerful analog computer of the
time.
1943: The Harvard Mark I, an early powerful calculator, started operation.
1946: ENIAC, capable of 5,000 operations per second, was developed.
1944-1945: John von Neumann worked on the design for a new computer, leading to the stored-
program concept.
1948: The "baby machine" at Manchester University was the first stored-program computer to
operate.
1949: The EDSAC at Cambridge University became the first full-scale stored-program computer in
regular use.
, 1952: UNIVAC, America's first commercial electronic computer, gained fame for predicting the
presidential election results.
1956: Thomas J. Watson Jr. took over IBM, leading it to become the world's top mainframe computer
supplier.
1959: IBM announced the model 1401, a fast and reliable second-generation computer using
transistors.
1964: IBM's System/360 was introduced, dominating the computer industry for decades.
Summary
WW2’s need for advanced calculations drove the invention of the moder computer. With figures like
mauchly, Eckert and von Neumann, they made groundbreaking advancement. After the war, Britain
made significant strides in computer development. Manchester computer and EDSAC were among the
first operational computers. Maurice Wilkes and FC Williams solved major technicla challenges, such
as memory storage, leading to the creation of practical and influential computers. These early efforts
laid the groundwork for the rapid advancement of computer technology in the following decades.
Chapter 5: the computer becomes a business machine.
In the 1950’s, people started using computers not just for solving math problems, but help businesses
handle a lot more information. IBM noticed this change around 1951. They changed their plans,
focused on making these new types of computers, and soon became the most important company in
the computer world. After WW2, US had the biggest market for computers. This helped american
companies become leaders in this industry. Three types of companies started making computers:
electronics companies, office machine companies and new start up companies.
More than optimistic: UNIVAC and BINAC
Eckert and Mauchly saw that computers could be used for business. They made a deal with the bureau
of census to build a computer called UNIVAC, which ended up costing much more than they
expected. They also worked on BINAC (airborn computer), to stay in business. They kept working on
UNIVAC. They tried to sell it to other companies but they needed more money. A company called
American Totalisator invested in them. When the investor Strauss died in a place accident, they lost
that support.
IBM’s smart moves
Meanwhile, IBM, a big competitor, was also working on computers. They were working on
electornics and computers in the 1940s. they were careful about entering the computer market, seeing
as they weren’t sure it would be profitable. IBM wanted to make their products better by adding
electronics. Started with Model 601, then upgraded to Model 604, which became very popular. They
also built SSEC, mostly for show and very expensive. They made more computers like the MDC and
the TPM. MDC was cheaper and used magnetic drums for memory. TPM used magnetic tape, similar
to UNIVAC, but IBM didn’t sell these computers right away. They focused on Defense calculator,
which was good for science but not for business data.
