Chapter 2
Methods Used in Psychology
Introduction
Psychology, as a science, uses methods that are systematic and objective, and produce verifiable
findings. Whether a branch of knowledge can be called a science or not depends on the methods it uses
to study its specific subject matter. So every science has its methods of study to suit its subject matter.
Like all other sciences, psychology has also developed its own methods. A study of historical
development of psychology shows that scientific methods were not used when it was treated as a
branch of philosophy. But psychology began to claim the status of a science with the establishment of
first psychological laboratory at Leipzig by Wilhelm Wundt in 1879. Some of the important methods
used in psychology are observation, experimental method, correlational method, and case-history
method, which are discussed next.
Observational Methods
Every science is based on observation of facts, and hence, observational methods are most
common to every discipline of science. Like all other sciences, psychology also uses observational
methods to study its subject matter. Observation can be objective or subjective. In objective
observation, a single observer or a number of observers can observe, whose findings can be cross-
checked, and verified. It is possible for a common man to observe the external or overt activities, and
this type of observation is objective observation. But when a person feels pain, hunger, or fatigue, it is
not possible for others to observe these experiences that are internal to him. Only the person himself
can be aware of these experiences and can observe himself. Such type of observation is called subjective
observation, which is otherwise known as introspection. Psychology studies both overt and covert
activities using objective and subjective observations, respectively. Observation can be made either in
the laboratory by creating an artificial situation, or can be made in natural settings, where the events
take place. Observing occurrence of events in the natural settings is called naturalistic observation.
,The literal meaning of observation is clear perception of some objects or events. Observation forms the
basis of any scientific enquiry. Scientific observation cannot be regarded as just a simple perception of a
layman. When some objects or events are observed in a scientific manner, these objects or events are
examined systematically. Objective observation is concerned with the events of the external world.
Psychologists use objective observation to study the overt activities of the organism. The subjective
observation, called introspection, asks a person to look within, and report his mental experiences. Both
the methods have considerable utility in psychology. Recently, many psychological instruments are used
to record the inner experiences. Yet the observational methods have their own advantages.
The observation may take place in the artificial setting of a laboratory (laboratory observation),
or in the natural field settings (naturalistic observation). The observer may be a part of the situation to
be observed (participant observation), or may observe from a distance without being a part of the
event (non-participant observation). The observer may study the outward activities of other persons in
a systematic manner (objective observation), or may observe himself by looking within to analyze his
thought processes (subjective observation). Depending on how and where the observation takes place
and for what purpose, there are different kinds of observational methods. A few observational methods
are discussed below.
Naturalistic Observation
A systematic study of behaviour in the natural settings is called naturalistic observation. It is
very critical to the development of scientific knowledge. Behaviours which otherwise cannot be
observed in experimental settings can be studied through naturalistic observation. The researcher takes
a passive role and simply records what occurs. For example, a bird-watcher may observe the behaviours
of birds in a forest. A social psychologist may observe how a crowd is formed, and how people behave in
a crowd. Psychologists interested in studying animals may observe the social behaviour of monkeys. In
each case, the researcher does not intervene in the phenomenon.
The advantage of naturalistic observation is obvious. We get a real
picture of what people do in their natural habitat. The major limitation of this method is that the
researcher cannot control any of the factors of interest. Too many extraneous factors influence the
, phenomenon. In order to observe an event, the researcher will have to wait until the appropriate event
takes place. If people know that they are watched, they may also alter their behaviour, which may not
be truly representative of their natural set of behaviours. Therefore, many researchers take recourse to
laboratory observation, in which the investigator observes the behaviors of interest under controlled
laboratory conditions.
Participant Observation
While conducting observations, the investigator may take the role of either a participant or non-
participant observer. In participant observation, the investigator actively participates in the group
activities, and thereby, becomes a part of the situation that is observed. Anthropologists make
extensive use of participant observation in studying the behaviors of and cultural practices of tribal
groups. They believe that a phenomenon can be best understood only when the researcher experiences
the situation by himself. Even in a laboratory set up, when a researcher administers a test to a subject,
his observation of the subject’s behaviour can best be described as participant observation. Teacher’s
observation of students’ behaviour in the classroom and observation of your friend’s behaviour in a
social get-together are examples of participant observation.
The participant observation can be overt in which the subjects know that they are being
observed or covert in which the researcher disguises his identity and acts like any other participant.
Covert participant observation yields more meaningful data, but can be criticized on ethical grounds.
The overt participant observation has a major drawback of not assessing the true picture of activities, as
the subjects would change their activities in the presence of the observer.
Non-participant Observation
In non-participant observation, researcher observes the phenomenon from a distance without
participating in the activities. Naturalistic observation is a form of non-participant observation. The
researcher takes care to see that he exerts minimal impact on the situation being observed. There are
occasions when non-participant observation is not possible. In order to observe the marriage customs
and marital life in a tribal society, it is not possible to stand back and observe the process. The subtle
and sensitive aspects of a situation would only be available to a participant observer. The nature of
observation would depend on the interest and requirement of the researcher.
Methods Used in Psychology
Introduction
Psychology, as a science, uses methods that are systematic and objective, and produce verifiable
findings. Whether a branch of knowledge can be called a science or not depends on the methods it uses
to study its specific subject matter. So every science has its methods of study to suit its subject matter.
Like all other sciences, psychology has also developed its own methods. A study of historical
development of psychology shows that scientific methods were not used when it was treated as a
branch of philosophy. But psychology began to claim the status of a science with the establishment of
first psychological laboratory at Leipzig by Wilhelm Wundt in 1879. Some of the important methods
used in psychology are observation, experimental method, correlational method, and case-history
method, which are discussed next.
Observational Methods
Every science is based on observation of facts, and hence, observational methods are most
common to every discipline of science. Like all other sciences, psychology also uses observational
methods to study its subject matter. Observation can be objective or subjective. In objective
observation, a single observer or a number of observers can observe, whose findings can be cross-
checked, and verified. It is possible for a common man to observe the external or overt activities, and
this type of observation is objective observation. But when a person feels pain, hunger, or fatigue, it is
not possible for others to observe these experiences that are internal to him. Only the person himself
can be aware of these experiences and can observe himself. Such type of observation is called subjective
observation, which is otherwise known as introspection. Psychology studies both overt and covert
activities using objective and subjective observations, respectively. Observation can be made either in
the laboratory by creating an artificial situation, or can be made in natural settings, where the events
take place. Observing occurrence of events in the natural settings is called naturalistic observation.
,The literal meaning of observation is clear perception of some objects or events. Observation forms the
basis of any scientific enquiry. Scientific observation cannot be regarded as just a simple perception of a
layman. When some objects or events are observed in a scientific manner, these objects or events are
examined systematically. Objective observation is concerned with the events of the external world.
Psychologists use objective observation to study the overt activities of the organism. The subjective
observation, called introspection, asks a person to look within, and report his mental experiences. Both
the methods have considerable utility in psychology. Recently, many psychological instruments are used
to record the inner experiences. Yet the observational methods have their own advantages.
The observation may take place in the artificial setting of a laboratory (laboratory observation),
or in the natural field settings (naturalistic observation). The observer may be a part of the situation to
be observed (participant observation), or may observe from a distance without being a part of the
event (non-participant observation). The observer may study the outward activities of other persons in
a systematic manner (objective observation), or may observe himself by looking within to analyze his
thought processes (subjective observation). Depending on how and where the observation takes place
and for what purpose, there are different kinds of observational methods. A few observational methods
are discussed below.
Naturalistic Observation
A systematic study of behaviour in the natural settings is called naturalistic observation. It is
very critical to the development of scientific knowledge. Behaviours which otherwise cannot be
observed in experimental settings can be studied through naturalistic observation. The researcher takes
a passive role and simply records what occurs. For example, a bird-watcher may observe the behaviours
of birds in a forest. A social psychologist may observe how a crowd is formed, and how people behave in
a crowd. Psychologists interested in studying animals may observe the social behaviour of monkeys. In
each case, the researcher does not intervene in the phenomenon.
The advantage of naturalistic observation is obvious. We get a real
picture of what people do in their natural habitat. The major limitation of this method is that the
researcher cannot control any of the factors of interest. Too many extraneous factors influence the
, phenomenon. In order to observe an event, the researcher will have to wait until the appropriate event
takes place. If people know that they are watched, they may also alter their behaviour, which may not
be truly representative of their natural set of behaviours. Therefore, many researchers take recourse to
laboratory observation, in which the investigator observes the behaviors of interest under controlled
laboratory conditions.
Participant Observation
While conducting observations, the investigator may take the role of either a participant or non-
participant observer. In participant observation, the investigator actively participates in the group
activities, and thereby, becomes a part of the situation that is observed. Anthropologists make
extensive use of participant observation in studying the behaviors of and cultural practices of tribal
groups. They believe that a phenomenon can be best understood only when the researcher experiences
the situation by himself. Even in a laboratory set up, when a researcher administers a test to a subject,
his observation of the subject’s behaviour can best be described as participant observation. Teacher’s
observation of students’ behaviour in the classroom and observation of your friend’s behaviour in a
social get-together are examples of participant observation.
The participant observation can be overt in which the subjects know that they are being
observed or covert in which the researcher disguises his identity and acts like any other participant.
Covert participant observation yields more meaningful data, but can be criticized on ethical grounds.
The overt participant observation has a major drawback of not assessing the true picture of activities, as
the subjects would change their activities in the presence of the observer.
Non-participant Observation
In non-participant observation, researcher observes the phenomenon from a distance without
participating in the activities. Naturalistic observation is a form of non-participant observation. The
researcher takes care to see that he exerts minimal impact on the situation being observed. There are
occasions when non-participant observation is not possible. In order to observe the marriage customs
and marital life in a tribal society, it is not possible to stand back and observe the process. The subtle
and sensitive aspects of a situation would only be available to a participant observer. The nature of
observation would depend on the interest and requirement of the researcher.
