1
,CHAPTER .1—PERSONALITY .AND .THE .SCIENTIFIC .OUTLOOK
CHAPTER .OUTLINE
I. Why .study .personality? . The .study .of .human .personality .helps .us .understand .ourselves
.and .other .people .better .and .gives .us .a .greater .appreciation .for .the .complexity .of .human
.experience.
II. Definition . of .Personality: .Personality .is .the .dynamic .and .organized .set .of
.characteristics .possessed .by .an .individual .that .uniquely .influences .his .or .her
.cognitions, .motivations .and .behaviors .in .various .situations.
III. Personality .and .Science: .Personality .is .a .scientific .enterprise .concerned .with .the
.description, .explanation, .prediction, .and .control .of .events.
A. .Components .of .Science: .Theories .and .Research .Methods
1. What .are .theories? . A .theory .is .a .system .of .interrelated .conceptual .statements .that
.are .created .by .investigators .to .account .for .a .phenomenon .or .a .set .of .phenomena.
2. Kinds .of .theories
a. inductive-sets .of .general .summary .statements .about .phenomena .derived .from .facts.
b. deductive-theories .in .which .specific .hypotheses .are .derived .from .abstract
.propositions .and .then .tested . by .the .collection .of .data. .Deductive .theories .consist .of
.postulates, .propositions, .conceptual .definitions, .operational .definitions, .hypotheses,
.and .empirical .observations.
1. postulates-the .fundamental .or .core .assumptions .of .a .theory. .They .are .taken .as
.self- .evidently .true .in .order .to .provide .a .clear .and .focused .direction .for
.theorizing .and .research.
2. propositions- .general .relational .statements .that .may .be .true .or .false. .They .are .not
.tested .directly; .instead, .hypotheses .are .derived .from .them.
3. hypotheses-specific .propositions .containing .constructs .that .are .conceptually .defined
.and .operationalized .so .they .can .tested .and .confirmed .or .disconfirmed .through
.empirical .testing. .Hypotheses .are .tentative .theoretical .statements .about .how .events
.are .related .to .one .another, .often .stated .as .predictions.
a. a .prior .predictions-predictions .made .before .the .collection .of .data.
4. conceptual .definitions- .concepts .in .the .hypotheses .are .defined .precisely .so .that
.accurate .measures .of .the .concepts .can .be .devised.
5. operational .definitions- .procedures .(or .operations) .used .to .define .particular .constructs.
2
,6. empirical .observations-observations .of .phenomena .made .by .investigators.
3
, 1V. .Research .Methods .Used .to .Test .Theories
A.Experimental . Method-technique .for .studying .cause-and- .effect .relationships
.between .variables. .It .involves .the .manipulation .of .independent .variables .and
.observation .of .the .effects .of .the .manipulation(s) .on .dependent .variables.
1. independent .variables-the .variables .actively .manipulated .by .the .experimenter .so
.that .their .effects .on .individual .behavior .can .be .observed.
2. dependent .variables-changes .in .behavior .that .occur .as .a .result .of .the .manipulation
.of .conditions .by .an .experimenter.
3. control .group-the .group .that .does .not .receive .the .experimental .treatment. .It .is
.designed .to .provide .baseline .data .against .which .the .effects .of .the .experimental
.manipulation(s) .on .the .dependent .variable(s) .can .be .accurately .judged.
B. Correlational . Method-general .procedure .for .establishing .an .association .or
.relationship .between .events.
1. positive .correlation-increases .in .the .scores .on .one .variable .are .associated .with
.increases .in .the .scores .on .the .other .variable.
2. negative .correlation-increases .in .the .scores .on .one .variable .are .associated
.with .decreases .in .the .scores .on .the .other.
3. no .relation-the .distributions .of .scores .on .the .two .variables .are .random
C. Case . Study .Method-technique .involving .the .intensive .study .of .a .single .person .in .order
.to .understand .his .or .her .unique .personality .and .behavior.
1. post-hoc .explanation-explanation .of .a .phenomenon .given .after .its .occurrence.
V. .Ethics .for .Conducting .Research
A.informed . consent-the .practice .of .telling .study .participants .about .the .nature .of
.their .participation .in .a .proposed .experiment .and .then .obtaining .their .written
.agreement .to .participate.
B. debriefing-informing . study .participants .of .the .true .nature .and .purpose .of .a .study .after .it
.is .completed.
VI. .Criteria .for .Evaluating .Theories
A.Comprehensiveness-theories . are .judged .as .more .adequate .and .useful .if .they
.encompass .and .account .for .a .wide .range .and .variety .of .phenomena.
B. Precision . and .testability- .adequate .theories .should .contain .constructs .and
.relational .statements .that .are .clearly .and .explicitly .stated .and .measured. .Under
.such .conditions, .theories .can .be .more .accurately .tested.
C. Parsimony- . adequate .theories .should .be .as .economical .as .possible, .while .still
.adequately .accounting .for .the .phenomena .in .their .domain.
D.Empirical . validity- .the .hypotheses .of .theories .are .tested .by .the .collection .of .data
.to .determine .whether .or .not .they .are .accurate.
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,CHAPTER .1—PERSONALITY .AND .THE .SCIENTIFIC .OUTLOOK
CHAPTER .OUTLINE
I. Why .study .personality? . The .study .of .human .personality .helps .us .understand .ourselves
.and .other .people .better .and .gives .us .a .greater .appreciation .for .the .complexity .of .human
.experience.
II. Definition . of .Personality: .Personality .is .the .dynamic .and .organized .set .of
.characteristics .possessed .by .an .individual .that .uniquely .influences .his .or .her
.cognitions, .motivations .and .behaviors .in .various .situations.
III. Personality .and .Science: .Personality .is .a .scientific .enterprise .concerned .with .the
.description, .explanation, .prediction, .and .control .of .events.
A. .Components .of .Science: .Theories .and .Research .Methods
1. What .are .theories? . A .theory .is .a .system .of .interrelated .conceptual .statements .that
.are .created .by .investigators .to .account .for .a .phenomenon .or .a .set .of .phenomena.
2. Kinds .of .theories
a. inductive-sets .of .general .summary .statements .about .phenomena .derived .from .facts.
b. deductive-theories .in .which .specific .hypotheses .are .derived .from .abstract
.propositions .and .then .tested . by .the .collection .of .data. .Deductive .theories .consist .of
.postulates, .propositions, .conceptual .definitions, .operational .definitions, .hypotheses,
.and .empirical .observations.
1. postulates-the .fundamental .or .core .assumptions .of .a .theory. .They .are .taken .as
.self- .evidently .true .in .order .to .provide .a .clear .and .focused .direction .for
.theorizing .and .research.
2. propositions- .general .relational .statements .that .may .be .true .or .false. .They .are .not
.tested .directly; .instead, .hypotheses .are .derived .from .them.
3. hypotheses-specific .propositions .containing .constructs .that .are .conceptually .defined
.and .operationalized .so .they .can .tested .and .confirmed .or .disconfirmed .through
.empirical .testing. .Hypotheses .are .tentative .theoretical .statements .about .how .events
.are .related .to .one .another, .often .stated .as .predictions.
a. a .prior .predictions-predictions .made .before .the .collection .of .data.
4. conceptual .definitions- .concepts .in .the .hypotheses .are .defined .precisely .so .that
.accurate .measures .of .the .concepts .can .be .devised.
5. operational .definitions- .procedures .(or .operations) .used .to .define .particular .constructs.
2
,6. empirical .observations-observations .of .phenomena .made .by .investigators.
3
, 1V. .Research .Methods .Used .to .Test .Theories
A.Experimental . Method-technique .for .studying .cause-and- .effect .relationships
.between .variables. .It .involves .the .manipulation .of .independent .variables .and
.observation .of .the .effects .of .the .manipulation(s) .on .dependent .variables.
1. independent .variables-the .variables .actively .manipulated .by .the .experimenter .so
.that .their .effects .on .individual .behavior .can .be .observed.
2. dependent .variables-changes .in .behavior .that .occur .as .a .result .of .the .manipulation
.of .conditions .by .an .experimenter.
3. control .group-the .group .that .does .not .receive .the .experimental .treatment. .It .is
.designed .to .provide .baseline .data .against .which .the .effects .of .the .experimental
.manipulation(s) .on .the .dependent .variable(s) .can .be .accurately .judged.
B. Correlational . Method-general .procedure .for .establishing .an .association .or
.relationship .between .events.
1. positive .correlation-increases .in .the .scores .on .one .variable .are .associated .with
.increases .in .the .scores .on .the .other .variable.
2. negative .correlation-increases .in .the .scores .on .one .variable .are .associated
.with .decreases .in .the .scores .on .the .other.
3. no .relation-the .distributions .of .scores .on .the .two .variables .are .random
C. Case . Study .Method-technique .involving .the .intensive .study .of .a .single .person .in .order
.to .understand .his .or .her .unique .personality .and .behavior.
1. post-hoc .explanation-explanation .of .a .phenomenon .given .after .its .occurrence.
V. .Ethics .for .Conducting .Research
A.informed . consent-the .practice .of .telling .study .participants .about .the .nature .of
.their .participation .in .a .proposed .experiment .and .then .obtaining .their .written
.agreement .to .participate.
B. debriefing-informing . study .participants .of .the .true .nature .and .purpose .of .a .study .after .it
.is .completed.
VI. .Criteria .for .Evaluating .Theories
A.Comprehensiveness-theories . are .judged .as .more .adequate .and .useful .if .they
.encompass .and .account .for .a .wide .range .and .variety .of .phenomena.
B. Precision . and .testability- .adequate .theories .should .contain .constructs .and
.relational .statements .that .are .clearly .and .explicitly .stated .and .measured. .Under
.such .conditions, .theories .can .be .more .accurately .tested.
C. Parsimony- . adequate .theories .should .be .as .economical .as .possible, .while .still
.adequately .accounting .for .the .phenomena .in .their .domain.
D.Empirical . validity- .the .hypotheses .of .theories .are .tested .by .the .collection .of .data
.to .determine .whether .or .not .they .are .accurate.
4
