Test Bank - Introduction to Health Research Methods A Practical Guide 3rd Edition ( Jacobsen, 2020)

INTRODUCTIONbTObRESEARCHbMETHODS.......................................................... 2


PRELIMINARIES.......................................................................................................... 9


CHAPTERbONE:bINTRODUCTION .......................................................................... 14


CHAPTERbTWO:bREVIEWbOFbLITERATURE ......................................................... 23


CHAPTERbTHREE:bMETHODOLOGY ..................................................................... 26


CHAPTERbFOUR:bDATAbANALYSIS ...................................................................... 39


CHAPTERbFIVE:bSUMMARY,bCONCLUSION/RECOMMENDATIONS............... 49




1

,INTRODUCTIONbTObRESEARCHbMETHODSbDEFINITIO

NbOFbRESEARCH

1. Researchb isb ab systematicb processb ofb investigationb towardsb increasingb theb sumb of
humanbknowledge.
2. Researchbisbabsearchbforbnewbknowledge.
3. Researchbisbabsystematicbprocessbofbarrivingbatbeffectivebsolutionsbtobproblemsbthroughbs
ystematicbcollection,banalysisbandbinterpretationbofbdata
4. Researchbisbabdiligentbinquiryborbabcriticalbexaminationbofbabgivenbphenomenon.
5. Researchbisbabsystematicbandbobjectivebcollectionbofbqualitativebandbquantitativebdata.

PURPOSEbOFbRESEARCH

Beforebthebadventbofbresearchbpeoplebsolvedbproblemsbthrough:

➢ Customsbandbtraditions
➢ Authoritybofbparents,belders,breligiousbleaders
➢ Personalbexperience
➢ Reasoning.


NowbletbusblookbatbsomebofbtheberrorsbthatbarebencounteredbwhenbyoubandbIbgainbknowledgebabou
tbthebworldbthroughbdirectbexperience.bWebarebgoingbtobidentifybthesebcommonbproblems,bbecaus
ebtheybhelpbusbunderstandbhowbscientificbresearchbisbconducted.

I.bErrorsbinbthebProcessbofbHumanbInquiry.bThesebarebsomebofbtheberrorsbthatbyoubandbIb
makebwhenbtryingbtobgainbknowledgebthroughbdirectbexperience.

A. ErrorsbinbObservation.

1. Inaccurate.bOurbobservationsbarebfullbofbmistakes.

a. Ignorebwhatbisbgoingbonbaroundbus.bOftenbwebdon’tbtakebnotebofbwhatbisbgoingbonbaroundbu
s.bThatbis,bwebdon’tbpaybabgreatbdealbofbattentionbtobmanybthingsbinbourbenvironment.

b. Sometimesbwebseebthingsbincorrectly.bSometimesbwebseebthingsbthebwaybtheybreallybaren't.

2. SelectivebObservations.bIfbwebbelievebthatbabpatternbexists,bthenbourbobservationsbwillbtendbt
obconfirmbtobthebpattern.

a. Webpaybmorebattentionbtobeventsbthatbfitbourbpreconceivedbideasbthanbthosebthatbdon’t.b
Webpaybmorebattentionbtobthingsbthatbwebexpectbtobsee.

Examples:

Ifbyoubbelievebthatbwomenbarebworsebdriversbthanbmen,byoubarebmoreblikelybtobnoticebwomanbwh
obarebpoorbdrivers,bthanbwomanbwhobarebgoodbdriversborbmenbwhobarebpoorbdrivers.




2

,Ifbyoubjustbbreak-
upbwithbyourbboyfriendbandbgirlfriend,bandbyoubthinkbthatbyoubarebthebonlybsinglebpersonbinbthebw
orld.bWhatbdobyoubseebwherebeverbyoubgo?b–
byoubprobablybseebcouplesbeverybwhereb(usuallybhappybcouplesbatbthat)b--

bitbisbwhatbyoubexpect btobsee.




b. Webinterpretbambiguousbeventsbandbbehaviorbsobthatbtheybfitbourbpreconceivedbideas.

Examples:

Whatbifbyoubseebabnicelybdressedbpersonbrunningbdownbthebstreet,bwhatbdobyoubthink?bWhatb

ifbyoubseebabpoorlybdressedbpersonbdoingbthebsamebthing,bwhatbdobyoubthink?

B. ErrorsbinbReasoning.bErrorsbwebmakebwhenbreachingbconclusions.

1. Overgeneralization.bWebtakebwhatbweblearnbfrombabselectbfewbobservationsbandbapplybitbtoba
bwidebrangebevents,bpeople,bandbsituations.




Example:

WhenbIbfirstbmovedbtobtownbtwobpeoplebatbmybbankbwhobwerebverybunfriendly.bIbnowbassumebtha
tbeveryonebwhobworksbatbmybbankbisbunfriendly.

2. Discountbobservationsbthatbdon’tbfitbourbexpectations.bWebexplainbawaybobservationsbt
hatbdon’tbfitbourbbeliefsbaboutbthebworld.bWhenbobservationsbdon’tbfitbwhatbwebexpect,bwebfin
dbwaysbtobexplainbthembaway.bThebfactsbdon'tbcountb--
bwebdiscountbthebfacts bandbmaintainbourbbeliefs.b"Itbwasbthebexceptionbtobthebrule"b--

bratherbthanbchangebthebrule,bwebignorebthebevidence.




Examples:

Let’sbsaybyoubthinkbthatbyoungbmenbinbfraternitiesbjustblikebtobparty,bandbyoubmeetbabguybfrombab
fratbwhobdoesn’tblikebtobdrinkbthatbmuch.bWhatbdobyoubthink?b(he’sbnotbabrealbfratbboy).

3. IllogicalbReasoning.bSometimesbourbinterpretationsbarebnotbbasedbuponblogical,bsoundbr
easoning.bAssumesbeventsbarebcausallybrelatedbevenbthoughbnotblogicallyborbempiricallybs
upported.

Example:

OnebdaybIbdressedbupbverybnicebandbIbletbmybclassbgobearly.bAnotherbdaybIbhappenedbtobbebdresse
dbupbandbIbalsobletbclassbgobearly.bThebthirdbtimebIbdressedbup,beveryonebwasbgettingbreallybrestles
sbduringbthebsecondbhalfbofbclass.bTheybassumedbthatbtheybwerebgoingbtobbebletbgobearlybagain.bPe
oplebtrybtobseebpatternsborbconnectionsbbetweenbeventsbwhenbsoundbreasoningbdoesbnotbsupportbs
uchbabconnection.

Justbbecausebtwobthingsbhappenbtogether,bdoesbnotbmeanbthatbtheybarebrelated.bMustbbebsomeblogi
cal,bnotbhypotheticalbreasonbforbeventsbtobco-occur.

C. ErrorsbinbthebProcessbThebwaybwebdevelopbknowledgebisbproblematic.

3

, 1. PrematurebClosure.bOncebabconclusionbhasbbeenbreached,boftenbwebdon’tbinvestigateborbe
xplorebthebissuebanybfurther.

Oncebwebthinkbwebhavebanbanswer,bwebdon'tbre-

addressbthebissue.bExample:

Ifbyoubconcludebthatbsomeonebisbunpleasantbtobbebaround,byou’llbprobablybalwaysbthinkbtheybare
bunpleasant..




2. PrivatebProcess.bManybtimesbwebdon’tbsharebwhatbwebarebthinkingborbhowbwebreachedbourbc
onclusionsb(i.e.,bobservations,binterpretations)bwithbthebworldbatblarge.bWeboftenbonlybsharebou
rbthoughtsbwithbthosebwhobalreadybagreebwithbus.bThus,bourbobservations,breasoning,bandbinter
pretationsbareboftenbnotbopenbtobcriticalbexaminationbandbscrutinybbybothers.

Conclusion

GainingbbeliefsbaboutbthebworldbthroughbTradition,bAuthority,bandbExperiencebsometimesblea
dsbtobknowledgebthatbisbinaccurateb--borbbiased.

Inbcontrastbtobtradition,bauthority,bandbexperience,bthebscientificbapproachbtobdevelopingbknowle
dgebemploysbsafeguardsbthatbhopefullybreducebthebamountbofberrorbandbbiasbcommonlybfoundbinb
thebotherbapproaches.

Currentlybthebpurposebofbresearchbisbto:

➢ Solvebproblems
➢ Testbandbimprovebthebexistingbknowledgeborbtheories
➢ Describebandbexplainbphenomenon
➢ Discoverbnewbknowledge
➢ Enablebpredictions
➢ Makebdecisionsbonbconflictingbtruths.

RESEARCHbCYCLE


Formationbofbideas
Interactbwithbtheb
world




Newbknowledgebcom
parebwithboriginalbidea Processingbandbi
s.bRefinebandbmodifybi nterpretationbofb
fbnecessary data/results.



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