1
Key theme 1 The democratic experiment 1918–29
SPECIFICATION
• 1. 1 The collapse of the Second Reich and the creation of the
N
Weimar Republic 1918–19:
O
TI
the reasons for and the impact of the transformation of Germany brought about by the
revolutions from above and below in 1918; the significance of the Weimar constitution 1919; the nature and roles of the
CA
various political parties that contested for power under the Weimar constitution.
U
• 1.2 Crises and Survival 1919–24:
D
CE
the nature and impact of the treaty of Versailles; the reasons for, and the impact of, the
challenges from the extreme left and the extreme right in Germany in these years; the reasons for, and the impact of, hyper-inflation in 1922–23; the
I
AT
reasons for the survival of the new constitutional arrangements.
M
• 1.3 The ‘Golden Years’ 1924–29:
O
IZ
the significance of Gustav Stresemann and Paul von Hindenburg; the reasons for the prosperity of this period; the significant social developments,
H
including those affecting women and education; the extent of underlying political and social tensions and the economic weaknesses threatening Weimar
prosperity, including the depression in agriculture.
R
• 1.4 Weimar culture: the significance of expressionism in art and the innovative achievements in film and theatre; the significance of
the Bauhaus.
,R
H
IZ
O
M
AT
I CE
D
U
CA
TI
O
N
2
, 3
STAGE 1 German Revolution 1918 - 1919
The German Revolution of 1918-1919 was a period of political and social upheaval in Germany that led to the fall of the German Empire and the
establishment of the Weimar Republic. The revolution began in the final days of World War I, as widespread unrest and discontent with the war and
news of German defeat, economic hardship, and political repression boiled over. It was marked by strikes, mass protests, and the mutiny of soldiers
N
and sailors. It can be organised into three connected and concurrent stages and features - revolution from below, above and limited revolution.
O
TI
CA
U
D
I CE
AT
M
O
IZ
H
R
, 4
context : By the end of September 1918 it had been clear to General Ludendorff and the German High Command that Germany was on the brink of
defeat. Although the Allied armies had not yet entered German territory, German forces were in retreat along the Western Front. Elsewhere in
Europe, Germany’s Allies were trying to negotiate peace terms. Ludendorff concluded that Germany’s only hope of avoiding a humiliating surrender
N
was to ask the Allies for an armistice. US President Wilson’s Fourteen Points offered a possible basis for a negotiated peace settlement but Ludendorff
O
understood that Germany’s autocratic political system was an obstacle to this. He, therefore, advocated a partial democratisation of the political system
TI
in Germany as a way of getting better peace terms from the Allies.
CA
OPINIONS AND INTERPRETATIONS
U
D
CE
Eric D. Weitz: Weitz argues that the revolution was a crucial turning point, noting:
"The German Revolution was not merely a response to defeat in World War I; it was a broader struggle for a new social and political order."
I
AT
Geoffrey Swain: Swain emphasizes the role of various political factions, stating:
M
"The revolution was marked by conflicting visions of what Germany should become, with socialists, liberals, and nationalists all vying for control."
O
IZ
Mark Jones: He highlights the chaotic nature of the revolution:
"The German Revolution was a tumultuous period, characterized by a mix of hope and disillusionment as different groups fought to shape the
H
future."
R
, 5
Hans Mommsen: Mommsen examines the failure of the revolution to fully realize its potential:
"Although the revolution initiated significant changes, it ultimately failed to establish a stable democratic regime due to internal divisions and
external pressures."
Klaus Erich Pollmann: Pollmann reflects on the societal impact:
N
"The revolution not only transformed the political landscape but also exposed deep societal rifts that would haunt Germany for decades."
O
TI
CA
U
D
I CE
AT
M
O
IZ
H
R
, 6
Timeline 1918
3rd of October Peace Note - Germany asks for an armistic
N
Stage 1 revolution from above (first step to a Republic to completed on the 9th of November)
O
TI
28th October - OCTOBER REFORMS
CA
constitutional reforms making Germany a PARLIAMENTARY MONARCHY
● Prince Max von Baden is appointed the Chancellor of a parliamentary government
U
● The Chancellor was to be responsible to the Reichstag and he established a new government based on the majority parties in the Reichstag,
most crucially German Social Democratic Party (SPD) - the largest party
D
● The German Empire asks the American President Woodrow Wilson for an armistice
I CE
Wilson replies on the 28th of October that the October reforms were not enough - . When Wilson replied, he demanded that Germany must
AT
evacuate all occupied territory, call an end to submarine warfare and fully democratise its political system. These terms, which effectively demanded
a German surrender and the Kaiser’s abdication, were too much for Ludendorff to accept.
M
O
revolution from below
IZ
H
Context: Shock of defeat:
R
1. Realisation by troops and sailors that the war was lost and nothing was to be gained by carrying on
2. The news that Prince Max’s government was asking for an armistice was a shattering blow to the morale of the German people and to their
armed forces.
, 7
3. Sense of national shock when the news came of Germany’s military defeat- propaganda and censorship had really delayed the reality for too
long
4. Increasing anger and bitterness over the socio-economic conditions
5. The Peace Note was an admission that Germany had lost the war.
N
6. This was the first occasion on which the German people had learned the truth about their country’s hopeless military situation. It
O
undermined their respect for the Kaiser and his military and political leaders.
TI
30 October
CA
● Mutiny of sailors
● Refused to obey orders at Wilhelmshaven to continue the war by attacking British ships in the English Channel ordered by German navy;s
U
high command
D
● Prince’s Max government quickly lost control of the political situation
I CE
3 November
AT
● Sailors gained control of other major ports (Kiel, Hamburg)
M
● Prompted by a real fear among the sailors that their officers were planning a Suicide Attack on the British Fleet- restore the honour of the
German navy
O
● News of the Kiel mutiny- discontent to other ports
IZ
By 6 November
H
R
● Workers’ and soldiers’ councils (similar to the soviets in Russia) established in the major cities (Berlin, Cologne, Stuttgart)
8th November - Bavarian Republic proclaimed
9th November : Ebert calls for Berlin strike to force the Kaiser to abdicate
, 8
Stage 2 revolution from above
● 9th November 1918:
Declaration of a German Republic in Berlin and abdication of the Kaiser
- Philipp Scheidemann (provisional government’s leader)- Proclaimed Germany a republic
- Kaiser walked away and went into exile voluntarily in the Netherlands
N
Context :
O
TI
Prior to the creation of a new constitution, Ebert urged Germans to keep essential services running, to avoid street demonstrations and to maintain
law and order. His problem was that his authority did not extend much beyond Berlin where disorder and violence were becoming the norm.
CA
After the armistice and the demobilisation of much of the army, bands of angry, disillusioned and workless ex-soldiers roamed the streets. Street
U
demonstrations, strikes and armed clashes became regular occurrences. In this situation, the survival of Ebert’s government depended on the support
D
of the army.
CE
Most army officers came from aristocratic backgrounds, had been loyal to the Kaiser and were vigorously opposed to democracy. They had no wish
to see Germany become a republic.
I
AT
In late 1918, however, the political situation in Germany was highly unstable and many officers believed that Germany faced the danger of a
Bolshevik revolution (like Russia’s in October 1917), which would lead to civil war and possible occupation by Allied forces.
M
Their first concern, therefore, was to prevent the revolution going any further.
O
IZ
Stage 3 - limited revolution
● 10th November 1918: EBERT GROENER PACT On 10 November, General Groener telephoned Ebert to assure him that the army
H
leadership would support the government. In return, Groener demanded that Ebert should resist the demands of the soldiers’ councils to
R
democratise the army and defend Germany against communist revolution. Ebert assured Groener that the government was determined to
resist further revolution and to uphold the existing command structure in the army. This agreement became known as the Ebert–Groener
Pact.
Key theme 1 The democratic experiment 1918–29
SPECIFICATION
• 1. 1 The collapse of the Second Reich and the creation of the
N
Weimar Republic 1918–19:
O
TI
the reasons for and the impact of the transformation of Germany brought about by the
revolutions from above and below in 1918; the significance of the Weimar constitution 1919; the nature and roles of the
CA
various political parties that contested for power under the Weimar constitution.
U
• 1.2 Crises and Survival 1919–24:
D
CE
the nature and impact of the treaty of Versailles; the reasons for, and the impact of, the
challenges from the extreme left and the extreme right in Germany in these years; the reasons for, and the impact of, hyper-inflation in 1922–23; the
I
AT
reasons for the survival of the new constitutional arrangements.
M
• 1.3 The ‘Golden Years’ 1924–29:
O
IZ
the significance of Gustav Stresemann and Paul von Hindenburg; the reasons for the prosperity of this period; the significant social developments,
H
including those affecting women and education; the extent of underlying political and social tensions and the economic weaknesses threatening Weimar
prosperity, including the depression in agriculture.
R
• 1.4 Weimar culture: the significance of expressionism in art and the innovative achievements in film and theatre; the significance of
the Bauhaus.
,R
H
IZ
O
M
AT
I CE
D
U
CA
TI
O
N
2
, 3
STAGE 1 German Revolution 1918 - 1919
The German Revolution of 1918-1919 was a period of political and social upheaval in Germany that led to the fall of the German Empire and the
establishment of the Weimar Republic. The revolution began in the final days of World War I, as widespread unrest and discontent with the war and
news of German defeat, economic hardship, and political repression boiled over. It was marked by strikes, mass protests, and the mutiny of soldiers
N
and sailors. It can be organised into three connected and concurrent stages and features - revolution from below, above and limited revolution.
O
TI
CA
U
D
I CE
AT
M
O
IZ
H
R
, 4
context : By the end of September 1918 it had been clear to General Ludendorff and the German High Command that Germany was on the brink of
defeat. Although the Allied armies had not yet entered German territory, German forces were in retreat along the Western Front. Elsewhere in
Europe, Germany’s Allies were trying to negotiate peace terms. Ludendorff concluded that Germany’s only hope of avoiding a humiliating surrender
N
was to ask the Allies for an armistice. US President Wilson’s Fourteen Points offered a possible basis for a negotiated peace settlement but Ludendorff
O
understood that Germany’s autocratic political system was an obstacle to this. He, therefore, advocated a partial democratisation of the political system
TI
in Germany as a way of getting better peace terms from the Allies.
CA
OPINIONS AND INTERPRETATIONS
U
D
CE
Eric D. Weitz: Weitz argues that the revolution was a crucial turning point, noting:
"The German Revolution was not merely a response to defeat in World War I; it was a broader struggle for a new social and political order."
I
AT
Geoffrey Swain: Swain emphasizes the role of various political factions, stating:
M
"The revolution was marked by conflicting visions of what Germany should become, with socialists, liberals, and nationalists all vying for control."
O
IZ
Mark Jones: He highlights the chaotic nature of the revolution:
"The German Revolution was a tumultuous period, characterized by a mix of hope and disillusionment as different groups fought to shape the
H
future."
R
, 5
Hans Mommsen: Mommsen examines the failure of the revolution to fully realize its potential:
"Although the revolution initiated significant changes, it ultimately failed to establish a stable democratic regime due to internal divisions and
external pressures."
Klaus Erich Pollmann: Pollmann reflects on the societal impact:
N
"The revolution not only transformed the political landscape but also exposed deep societal rifts that would haunt Germany for decades."
O
TI
CA
U
D
I CE
AT
M
O
IZ
H
R
, 6
Timeline 1918
3rd of October Peace Note - Germany asks for an armistic
N
Stage 1 revolution from above (first step to a Republic to completed on the 9th of November)
O
TI
28th October - OCTOBER REFORMS
CA
constitutional reforms making Germany a PARLIAMENTARY MONARCHY
● Prince Max von Baden is appointed the Chancellor of a parliamentary government
U
● The Chancellor was to be responsible to the Reichstag and he established a new government based on the majority parties in the Reichstag,
most crucially German Social Democratic Party (SPD) - the largest party
D
● The German Empire asks the American President Woodrow Wilson for an armistice
I CE
Wilson replies on the 28th of October that the October reforms were not enough - . When Wilson replied, he demanded that Germany must
AT
evacuate all occupied territory, call an end to submarine warfare and fully democratise its political system. These terms, which effectively demanded
a German surrender and the Kaiser’s abdication, were too much for Ludendorff to accept.
M
O
revolution from below
IZ
H
Context: Shock of defeat:
R
1. Realisation by troops and sailors that the war was lost and nothing was to be gained by carrying on
2. The news that Prince Max’s government was asking for an armistice was a shattering blow to the morale of the German people and to their
armed forces.
, 7
3. Sense of national shock when the news came of Germany’s military defeat- propaganda and censorship had really delayed the reality for too
long
4. Increasing anger and bitterness over the socio-economic conditions
5. The Peace Note was an admission that Germany had lost the war.
N
6. This was the first occasion on which the German people had learned the truth about their country’s hopeless military situation. It
O
undermined their respect for the Kaiser and his military and political leaders.
TI
30 October
CA
● Mutiny of sailors
● Refused to obey orders at Wilhelmshaven to continue the war by attacking British ships in the English Channel ordered by German navy;s
U
high command
D
● Prince’s Max government quickly lost control of the political situation
I CE
3 November
AT
● Sailors gained control of other major ports (Kiel, Hamburg)
M
● Prompted by a real fear among the sailors that their officers were planning a Suicide Attack on the British Fleet- restore the honour of the
German navy
O
● News of the Kiel mutiny- discontent to other ports
IZ
By 6 November
H
R
● Workers’ and soldiers’ councils (similar to the soviets in Russia) established in the major cities (Berlin, Cologne, Stuttgart)
8th November - Bavarian Republic proclaimed
9th November : Ebert calls for Berlin strike to force the Kaiser to abdicate
, 8
Stage 2 revolution from above
● 9th November 1918:
Declaration of a German Republic in Berlin and abdication of the Kaiser
- Philipp Scheidemann (provisional government’s leader)- Proclaimed Germany a republic
- Kaiser walked away and went into exile voluntarily in the Netherlands
N
Context :
O
TI
Prior to the creation of a new constitution, Ebert urged Germans to keep essential services running, to avoid street demonstrations and to maintain
law and order. His problem was that his authority did not extend much beyond Berlin where disorder and violence were becoming the norm.
CA
After the armistice and the demobilisation of much of the army, bands of angry, disillusioned and workless ex-soldiers roamed the streets. Street
U
demonstrations, strikes and armed clashes became regular occurrences. In this situation, the survival of Ebert’s government depended on the support
D
of the army.
CE
Most army officers came from aristocratic backgrounds, had been loyal to the Kaiser and were vigorously opposed to democracy. They had no wish
to see Germany become a republic.
I
AT
In late 1918, however, the political situation in Germany was highly unstable and many officers believed that Germany faced the danger of a
Bolshevik revolution (like Russia’s in October 1917), which would lead to civil war and possible occupation by Allied forces.
M
Their first concern, therefore, was to prevent the revolution going any further.
O
IZ
Stage 3 - limited revolution
● 10th November 1918: EBERT GROENER PACT On 10 November, General Groener telephoned Ebert to assure him that the army
H
leadership would support the government. In return, Groener demanded that Ebert should resist the demands of the soldiers’ councils to
R
democratise the army and defend Germany against communist revolution. Ebert assured Groener that the government was determined to
resist further revolution and to uphold the existing command structure in the army. This agreement became known as the Ebert–Groener
Pact.
