Advanced Pharmacology Fundamentals (Latest
2025 )Actual Questions with Verified and Correct
Answers
_____________________________________________________________________________________
How to confirm diabetes diagnosis
Fasting plasma glucose ≥126 mg/dLa
Random plasma glucose ≥ 200 mg/dL plus symptoms of diabetes
Oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT): 2-h plasma glucose ≥200 mg/dLc
Hemoglobin A1c 6.5% or higher (STANDARD TEST)
What is the general glycemic goal for A1C?
<7.0%
how often should A1c be checked?
Every 3-6 months
*every 3 months until A1c is <7.0%
A1C goal for older adults?
<7.5% for adults with few health issues
<8.0%-8.5 for adults with Comorbidities or cognitive issues
What drug is preferred for diabetes treatment?
Metformin
At what A1c level should insulin be considered?
>10%
In patients with type 2 diabetes who need greater glucose lowering than can be obtained with oral
agents, what is the preferred treatment?
GLP-1 receptor agonists are preferred to insulin when possible
Action of Insulin
Insulin acts in two ways to promote anabolic effects.
it stimulates cellular transport (uptake) of glucose, amino acids, nucleotides, and potassium
insulin promotes synthesis of complex organic molecules.
Pioglitazone contraindications
Heart failure and Bladder cancer
, Which diabetes medication comes with a concerns for hypoglycemia?
Insulin
Considerations
reduced intake of food, vomiting and diarrhea (which reduce absorption of nutrients)
excessive consumption of alcohol (which promotes hypoglycemia)
unusually intense exercise (which promotes cellular glucose uptake and metabolism)
childbirth (which reduces insulin requirements).
MOA Glucagon-like Peptide-1 (GLP-1) Receptor Agonists
Lower blood glucose by slowing gastric emptying, stimulating glucose-dependent insulin release,
suppressing postprandial glucagon release, and reducing appetite
Dulaglutide (Trulicity)
Semaglutide(Ozempic)
Liraglutide (Victoza)
MOA Thiazolidinediones (TZD)
Decrease insulin resistance and thereby increase glucose uptake by muscle and adipose tissue
and decrease glucose production by the liver
Rosiglitzaone(Avandia)
Pioglitazone (Actos)
MOA Dipeptidyl Peptidase-4 (DPP-4) Inhibitors
Enhance the activity of incretins (by inhibiting their breakdown by DPP-4) and thereby increase
insulin release, reduce glucagon release, and decrease hepatic glucose production
sitagliptin (Januvia)
Saxagliptin(onglyza)
Linagliptin (Tradjenta)
Alogliptin(Nesina)
MOA Sulfonylureas
Promote insulin secretion by the pancreas; may also increase tissue response to insulin
Glyburide
Glipizide
Glimepiride
MOA Sodium-Glucose Cotransporter 2 (SGLT-2) Inhibitors
Increase glucose excretion via the urine by inhibiting SGLT-2 in the kidney tubules, decreasing
glucose levels and inducing weight loss by caloric loss through the urine
2025 )Actual Questions with Verified and Correct
Answers
_____________________________________________________________________________________
How to confirm diabetes diagnosis
Fasting plasma glucose ≥126 mg/dLa
Random plasma glucose ≥ 200 mg/dL plus symptoms of diabetes
Oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT): 2-h plasma glucose ≥200 mg/dLc
Hemoglobin A1c 6.5% or higher (STANDARD TEST)
What is the general glycemic goal for A1C?
<7.0%
how often should A1c be checked?
Every 3-6 months
*every 3 months until A1c is <7.0%
A1C goal for older adults?
<7.5% for adults with few health issues
<8.0%-8.5 for adults with Comorbidities or cognitive issues
What drug is preferred for diabetes treatment?
Metformin
At what A1c level should insulin be considered?
>10%
In patients with type 2 diabetes who need greater glucose lowering than can be obtained with oral
agents, what is the preferred treatment?
GLP-1 receptor agonists are preferred to insulin when possible
Action of Insulin
Insulin acts in two ways to promote anabolic effects.
it stimulates cellular transport (uptake) of glucose, amino acids, nucleotides, and potassium
insulin promotes synthesis of complex organic molecules.
Pioglitazone contraindications
Heart failure and Bladder cancer
, Which diabetes medication comes with a concerns for hypoglycemia?
Insulin
Considerations
reduced intake of food, vomiting and diarrhea (which reduce absorption of nutrients)
excessive consumption of alcohol (which promotes hypoglycemia)
unusually intense exercise (which promotes cellular glucose uptake and metabolism)
childbirth (which reduces insulin requirements).
MOA Glucagon-like Peptide-1 (GLP-1) Receptor Agonists
Lower blood glucose by slowing gastric emptying, stimulating glucose-dependent insulin release,
suppressing postprandial glucagon release, and reducing appetite
Dulaglutide (Trulicity)
Semaglutide(Ozempic)
Liraglutide (Victoza)
MOA Thiazolidinediones (TZD)
Decrease insulin resistance and thereby increase glucose uptake by muscle and adipose tissue
and decrease glucose production by the liver
Rosiglitzaone(Avandia)
Pioglitazone (Actos)
MOA Dipeptidyl Peptidase-4 (DPP-4) Inhibitors
Enhance the activity of incretins (by inhibiting their breakdown by DPP-4) and thereby increase
insulin release, reduce glucagon release, and decrease hepatic glucose production
sitagliptin (Januvia)
Saxagliptin(onglyza)
Linagliptin (Tradjenta)
Alogliptin(Nesina)
MOA Sulfonylureas
Promote insulin secretion by the pancreas; may also increase tissue response to insulin
Glyburide
Glipizide
Glimepiride
MOA Sodium-Glucose Cotransporter 2 (SGLT-2) Inhibitors
Increase glucose excretion via the urine by inhibiting SGLT-2 in the kidney tubules, decreasing
glucose levels and inducing weight loss by caloric loss through the urine
